Ulaşım Yoksulluğu ve Toplumsal Dışlanma

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 11 Sayı: 2, 223 - 238, 30.12.2023

Hikmet Gülçin Beken

https://doi.org/10.53586/susbid.1391596

Cited By: 1

Öz

Sürdürülebilir kalkınma hedeflerinde yoksullukla mücadele vurgusu olsa da yoksulluk çok boyutluluğu ile hem gelişmekte olan hem de gelişmiş ülkelerde bir sorun olmaya devam etmektedir. Ulaşım yoksulluğu, bireylerin ya da hanehalklarının temel ihtiyaçlarını ve faaliyetlerini gerçekleştirmelerini sağlayacak ulaşım olanaklarından yoksunluklarının bir ifadesidir. Ulaşıma erişim, ulaşımın karşılanabilirliği ve mobilitenin arttırılması hem yoksullukla hem de toplumsal dışlanma ile mücadelede özellikle kırılgan gruplar açısından önem kazanmaktadır. Sürdürülebilir ulaşım üzerinden değerlendirme yapıldığında sosyal, ekonomik ve çevresel bağlamın dikkate alınması gerekmektedir. Bu bağlamda ulaşım, sürdürülebilir kalkınma hedefleri ve iklim anlaşmalarının başarıyla gerçekleştirilmesinde de destekleyici rol üstlenmektedir. Ulaşım, mobiliteyi arttırırken sera gazı salımını azaltıcı yönde faaliyet gösterdiğinde iklim değişikliği ile mücadele ve çevrenin korunmasına ilişkin gereklilikler de sağlanmış olacaktır. Kapsayıcı ve diğer sosyal politika alanları ile bütünleşmiş ulaşım politikaları, toplumsal içerilmenin arttırılmasında, kırılganlıkların azaltılmasında ve iktisadi büyümenin sağlanmasında kullanılabilecek araçlar arasındadır. Çalışmada, ulaşım yoksulluğu üzerinde etkili olan faktörler ve toplumsal dışlanma üzerindeki etkisi sürdürülebilirlik, mobilite ve iklim değişikliği ile mücadele üzerinden değerlendirilmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Ulaşım yoksulluğu, toplumsal dışlanma, mobilite, sürdürülebilirlik

Transport Poverty and Social Exclusion

Öz

Although there is an emphasis on fighting against poverty in sustainable development goals (SDGs), poverty is still a problem for both developing and developed countries because of its multi-dimensionality. Transport poverty is a statement of a loss or lack of transportation means to enable individuals and households to meet their basic needs and daily activities. Access to transportation, the affordability of transportation, and the increase in mobility are gaining importance, especially with the existence of vulnerable groups, in the fight against both poverty and social exclusion. The social, economic, and environmental contexts must be considered while assessing sustainable transportation. In this regard, transportation helps to ensure that climate treaties and targets for sustainable development can be successfully met. In order to combat climate change and protect the environment, transportation must enhance mobility while decreasing the release of greenhouse gases. Transport policies, which are inclusive and integrated with other social policy areas such as education and health, are instruments for increasing social participation, reducing vulnerabilities, and sustaining economic growth. In this study, the factors affecting transport poverty and its impact on social exclusion are evaluated through sustainability, mobility, and the fight against climate change.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Transport poverty, social exclusion, mobility, sustainability

Kaynakça

• Ağaoğlu, M.N. & Başdemir, H. (2019). Kent içi ulaşım sorunları ve çözüm önerileri. Gaziosmanpaşa Bilimsel Araştırma Dergisi, 8(1), 27-36.
• Alam, M. M. (2015). Creating pro-poor transport:connectig the dots: transport, growth and poverty reduction. Connections Transport&ICT. (Note 24). World Bank, Washington,DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/entities/publication/6b2527a1-cd3d-566f-ae71-161a4492bf1b (Erişim tarihi 15.09.2023).
• Babinard, J. (2014, May 1). Is public transport affordable? World Bank. https://blogs.worldbank.org/transport/public-transport-affordable (Erişim tarihi 17.08.2023).
• Balkmar, D. (2022, September 27). What is ‘transport poverty’? How can we achieve a more just and sustainable transport system?. https://accting.eu/what-does-transport-poverty-mean-how-can-we-achieve-a-more- just-and-sustainable-transport-system/ (Erişim tarihi 15.09.2023).
• Banister, D. (2008). The sustainable mobility paradigm. Transport Policy, 15(2), 73–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2007.10.005
• Banister, D. & Berechman, Y. (2001). Transport investment and the promotion of economic growth. Journal of Transport Geography, 9, 209-218. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0966-6923(01)00013-8
• Baptista, I. & Marlier, E. (2020). Access to essential services for people on low incomes in europe: an analysis of policies in 35 countries. Directorate Genral for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion. European Social Policy Network (ESPN). Publications Office. European Commissions Brussels.
• Benk, S., Akdemir, T. (2010). Toplu taşıma hizmetlerinde fiyatlama stratejileri: teorik bir değerlendirme. Ekonomi Bilimleri Dergisi, 2(1), 131-138.
• Benevenuto, R. & Caulfield, B. (2019). Poverty and transport in the global south:an overview. Transport Policy, 79, 115-224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2019.04.018
• Berechman, J. (2002). Transport Investment and Economic Development: Is There a Link?. ECMT. Transport and Economic Development, ECMT Round Tables, No. 119, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789282112977-en.
• Berg,C.N., Deichmann, U., Liu Y., & Selod, H. (2017). Transport Policies and Development. The Journal of Development Studies, 53(4), 465-480.
• Booth, D., Hanmer, L., ve Lovell, E. (2000). Poverty and Transport: A report prepared for the World Bank in collaboration with DFID. ODI/Overseas Development Institute. https://policycommons.net/artifacts/3794386/poverty-and-transport/4600214/, (Erişim tarihi:11.09.2023).
• Bradshaw, J., Kemp, P., Baldwin, S.& Rowe, A. (2004). The Drivers of Social Exclusion: A Review of the Literature for the Social Exclusion Unit. (Breaking the Cycles Series). Social Exclusion Unit, Office of the Deputy Prime Minister. http://www.york.ac.uk/inst/spru/research/pdf/drivers.pdf (Erişim tarihi 17.10.2023).
• Cain, A. & Jones, P. M. (2008). Does urban road pricing cause hardship to low-income car drivers?: an affordability-based approach. Transportation Research Record, 2067(1), 47-55.
• Church, A., Frost, M., & Sullivan, K. (2000). Transport and social exclusion in London. Transport Policy, 7(3), 195- 205. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0967-070X(00)00024-X
• Cora, U., Kışla, R. & Su, Ö.A. (2021). Kentiçi toplu taşıma araçları için performansa dayalı hakediş sistemi: İstanbul örneği modeli. Avrupa Bilim ve Teknoloji Dergisi, 31(Ek Sayı 1), 232-241.
• Coulon, P.J., Lamure-Guigard, L., & Krieger, K. (2019,19 November). It is time to talk about transport poverty, Social Europe, https://www.socialeurope.eu/it-is-time-to-talk-about-transport-poverty.
• Crisp, R., Gore, T., & McCarthy, L. (2017). Adressing transport barriers to work in low income neighbourhoods: A review of evidence and practice. Sheffield Hallam University Centre for Regional Economic and Social Research. DOI: 10.7190/cresr.2017.3465773384
• Currie, G.& Delbosc, A. (2010). Modelling the social and psychological impacts of transport disadvantage. Transportation, 37, 953–966. DOI 10.1007/s11116-010-9280-2
• Dotter, F. (2016). Transport Poverty. Civitas Thematic Policy Note. https://civitas.eu/resources/civitas-thematic- policy-note-transport-poverty-0, (Erişim tarihi 08.10.2023)
• ECMT (2000). Sustainable transport policies. European Conference of Ministers of Transport. https://www.itf- oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/00sustain_0.pdf, (Erişim 21.09.2023).
• Ensink, B., Minovi, S., Gorham R., & Vandycke, N. (2015). The next step for transport in the SDGs: Devising the right indicators. World Bank Group.
• Estupiñán, N., Gómez-Lobo, A., Muñoz-Raskin, R. ve Serebrisky, T. (2007). Affordability and subsidies in public urban transport: what do we mean, what can be done?. Policy Research Working Paper; No. 4440. World Bank, Washington, DC. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/7562
• European Commission (EC). What are the 20 principles of the european pillar of social rights? (easy-to-read version), https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1567&langId=en (Erişim tarihi:05.09.2023). European Environment Agency (EEA) (2022). Transport and environment report 2021 decarbonising road transport — the role of vehicles, fuels and transport demand (Report No 02/2022). EEA.
• European Public Service Union (EPSU). EU pillar of social rights-time for action says EPSU. https://www.epsu.org/article/eu-pillar-social-rights-time-action-says-epsu (Erişim tarihi 12.08.2023).
• Eurostat (2023). Key Figures on Europe: 2023 edition. Luxembourg:European Union. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/15216629/17177791/KS-EI-23-001-EN-N.pdf/5df7a393-8461-9270- 7eaa-91a4b1c2acc6?version=2.0&t=1689583429855
• Eurostat Statistics. Evolution of household expenditure by consumption purpose - COICOP, EU, 2010-2021, share of total. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php? title=File:Evolution_of_household_expenditure_by_consumption_purpose_-_COICOP,_EU,_2010- 2021,_share_of_total. (Erişim 21.10.2023).
• Estivill, J. (2003). Concepts and strategies for combating social exclusion. An overview. Geneva, International Labour Office.
• https://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/socsec/step/download/96p1.pdf (Erişim tarihi:09.08.2023).
• Fletcher, C.N., Garasky, S.B., & Nielsen, R.B. (2005). Transportation hardship: are you better off with a car?. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 26, 323–343.
• Gannon, C.A. & Liu, Z. (1997). Transport and Poverty. (TWU Papers No 30). The World Bank. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/302611538245213278/pdf/Poverty-and-transport.pdf (Erişim tarihi:02.07.2023).
• Guislain, P.& Irigoyen, J. L. (2015). Action and advocacy for sustainable transport:recent and ongoing World Bank efforts. World Bank. Washington DC.
• https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/entities/publication/9825a7e5-b093-5ef7-bdde-6dec07d0751c (Erişim tarihi 17.08.2023).
• Hernández, D. (2017). Public transport, well-being and inequality: coverage and affordability in the city of Montevideo. (Review No:22). CEPAL https://www.cepal.org/sites/default/files/publication/files/42665/RVI122_Hernandez.pdf (Erişim tarihi:13.08.2023).
• High-level Advisory Group on Sustainable Transport (2016). Mobilizing sustainable transport for development. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/2375Mobilizing%20Sustainable%20Transport.pdf (Erişim tarihi:05.10.2023).
• Hodgson, F.C. & Turner, J. (2003). Participation not consumption: the need for new participatory practices to address transport and social exclusion, Transport Policy, 10(4), 265-272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2003.08.001
• Iceland, J. (2000). The family/couple/household unit of measurement in poverty estimation. Journal of Economic and Social Measurement. 26, 253-265. 10.3233/JEM-2000-0189.
• İstanbul’da Ulaşım Yoksulluk Çalıştayı (2021). Ulaşım Yoksulluğundan Kapsayıcı Ulaşım Sistemine: Sosyo Mekânsal Eşitsizlikleri Azaltmaya Yönelik Bir Model Önerisi (TÜBİTAK 1001 Programı destekli Proje no:120K152).
• Jarvis, T. (2022). Transport for the north.transport-related social exclusion in the north of england. https://transportforthenorth.com/strategy-and-evidence/ (Erişim tarihi 15.09.2023).
• Jennings, G. (2016). Transport, poverty alleviaton and the principles of social justice. Inclusive Sustainable Transport in support of action on Equity and Poverty (i-STEP)Version: November 2016.
• Kenyon, S., Lyons, G., & Rafferty, J. (2002). Transport and social exclusion: investigating the possibility of promoting inclusion through virtual mobility. Journal of Transport Geography, 10(3), 207-219. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0966-6923(02)00012-1
• Lang, N. (2022, 18 May). Why mobility matters when it comes to social inclusion, World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/05/when-it-comes-to-social-inclusion-mobility-matters/ (Erişim tarihi 11.07.2023).
• Lekobane, K. R. (2022). Leaving no one behind: an individual-level approach to measuring multidimensional poverty in botswana. Social Indicators Research, 162, 179–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-021-02824-2
• Lowans, C. Furszyfer Del Rio, D. Sovacool, B.K., Rooney, D. & Foley, A.M. (2021). What is the state of the art in energy and transport poverty metrics? A critical and Comprehensive review. Energy Economics, 101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2021.105360.
• Lucas, K. (2011). Transport and social exclusion:where are we now?.IN Grieco, M. & Urry, J. (Eds). Mobilities: New Perspectives on Transport and Society (pp. 223-244). Surrey, UK:Ashgate Publishing Limited.
• Lucas, K. (2018). Editorial for special issue of European transport research review: transport poverty and inequalities. European Transport Research Review, 10(17), 15-17.
• Lucas, K., Mattioli, G., Verlinghieri, E., & Guzman, A. (2016). Transport poverty and its adverse social consequences. Proceedings of Institution of Civil Engineers Transport, 169(6), 353-365. http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jtran.15.00073
• Martiskainen, M., Sovacool, B.K., Lacey-Barnacle, M., Hopkins, D., Jenkins, K.E.H., Simcock, N. Mattioli, G., & Bouzarovski, S. (2021). New dimensions of vulnerability to energy and transport poverty. Joule, 5(1), 3–7.
• Mattioli, G., Lucas, K., & Marsden, G. (2017). Transport poverty and fuel poverty in the UK: from analogy to comparison. Transport Policy, 59, 93-105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2017.07.007
• Mc Donagh, J. (2006). Transport policy instruments and transport-related social exclusion in rural Republic of Ireland. Journal of Transport Geography, 14, 355–366.
• MDB Working Group (2019). Progress Report (2016-2018) of the MDB working group on sustainable transport. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/536306/mdb-progress-report-2016-2018.pdf (Erişim tarihi 18.08.2023).
• Mejia-Dorantes, L. Murauskaite-Bull, I. (2022). Transport poverty:a systematic literature review in europe. EUR 31267 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. doi:10.2760/793538
• Mitiku, T. N. (2009.) A framework for a pro-growth, pro-poor transport strategy: Guidance note. Sub-saharan africa transport policy program (SSATP) (working paper series;no. 89).World Bank, Washington, DC. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/17777
• Mitropoulos L., Kortsari A., Mizaras V., & Ayfantopoulou, G. (2023). Mobility as a service (MaaS) planning and implementation: challenges and lessons learned. Future Transportation. 3(2), 498-518. https://doi.org/10.3390/futuretransp3020029
• Mohmand, Y.T., Mehmood, F., Mughal, K.S., & Aslam, F. (2021). Investigating the causal relationship between transport infrastructure, economic growth and transport emissions in Pakistan. Research in Transportation Economics, 88, 100-972.
• Moody, J. & Bianchi Alves, B. (2022, 12 June). Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) can help developing cities make the most of complex urban transport systems—if they implement it right. World Bank Blogs. https://blogs.worldbank.org/transport/mobility-as-a-service-can-help-developing-cities-make-most- complex-urban-transport-systems-if-they-implement-it-right (Erişim tarihi 12.09.2023).
• Netherlands Enterprise Agency/ (RVO) (2020). Fact-Finding Study Pre-PPS: Smart and Green Mobility in Istanbul. https://istanbulon.itu.edu.tr/docs/librariesprovider272/default-document-library/smart-and-green- mobility-in-istanbul_2020-(in-english).pdf?sfvrsn=0, (Erişim tarihi 09.07.2023).
• Nistor, F. & Popa, C. (2014). The role of transport in economic development. Mircea cel Batran Naval Academy Scientific Bulletin, XVII (2), 25-26.
• Özkazanç, S.& Özdemir Sönmez, F. N. (2015). Ulaşım perspektifinden sosyal dışlanma kavramının değerlendirilmesi. Türk Bilimsel Derlemeler Dergisi, 8 (1), 10-18.
• Pérez-Peña, M.d.C., Jiménez-García, M., Ruiz-Chico, J. & Peña-Sánchez, A.R. (2021). Transport poverty with special reference to sustainability: a systematic review of the literature. Sustainability, 13, 1451. https://doi.org/10.3390/ su13031451.
• Preston, J. ve Rajé, F. (2007). Accessibility, mobility and transport-related social exclusion. Journal of Transport Geography, 15(3), 151-160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2006.05.002
• Ranchordas, S. (2020). Smart mobility, transport poverty, and the right to inclusive mobility. University of Groningen Faculty of Law Research Paper Series (No. 13). https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm? abstract_id=3520525 (Erişim tarihi: 11.08.2023).
• Saif, M.A., Zefreh, M.M., & Torok, A. (2019). Public transport accessibility: a literature review. Periodica Polytechnica Transportation Engineering, 47(1), 36-43.
• Setboonsarng, S. (2005). Transport infrastructure and poverty reduction. ADBI Research Policy Brief, (No. 21). ADBI. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/157260/adbi-rpb21.pdf
• SPIEU (2020, 30 April). Pilot project: measuring what matters to eu citizens:social progress in europea regions. https://eu-spi.eu/events/virtual-peer-learning-event-examining-transport-poverty-social-dimensions- transport (Erişim tarihi:07.09.2023).
• Stanley, J.& Stanley, J. (2007). Public transport and social policy goals. Road & Transport Research, 16(1), 20–30.
• Stanley, J. & Vella-Brodrick, D. (2009). The usefullness of social exclusion to inform social policy in transport. Transport policy, 16, 90-96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2009.02.003
• Suzuki, T. (2022). Transport and equity:toward inclusive transport development. JICA Ogato Sadako Research Institute for Pece and Development. No. 17). JICA. https://www.jica.go.jp/english/jica_ri/publication/litreview/post_17.html (Erişim tarihi 21.07.2023).
• Szeri, Ayhan Selçuk, İ. (2019). Eşitlik, erişilebilirlik ve toplu taşıma. İdealkent Dergisi, 28(10), 1207-1229, DOI:10.31198/idealkent.519139.
• Talih, Ö. & Tektaş, N. (2022). The perspective of mobility as a service (MaaS) and analysis of Türkiye. Journal of Transportation and Logistics, 7(2), 431-463.
• United Nations/UN(2016). Leaving no one behind:the imperative of inclusive development.Report on the world social situation 2016 (No. ST/ESA/362). United Nations, New York.
• United Nations/UN(2021). Sustainable transport, sustainable development. Interagency Report for Second Global Sustainable Transport Conference. https://sdgs.un.org/sites/default/files/2021- 10/Transportation%20Report%202021_FullReport_Digital.pdf (Erişim tarihi 11.07.2023).
• United Nations /UN (2006). Relationship Between Transport And Economic Development. (ECE/TRANS/WP.5/2006/10). Economic Commission For Europe Inland Transport Committee.
• Vega, A. (2011, 31 August-1 September). A multi-modal approach to sustainable accessibility: a case study for the city of galway, Ireland. Proceedings of the ITRN2011, University College Cork.
• Wachs, M. (2010). Transportation policy, poverty, and sustainability, history and future. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2163(1), 5-12.
• Wachs, M.& Taylor, B.D. (1998). Can transportation strategies help meet the welfare challenge?, Journal of the American Planning Association, 64(1), 15-19.
• World Bank (2020). Transport-The Essential Connector. https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/157201585683713721-0190022020/original/WBTransportNarrative.pdf (Erişim tarihi 21.07.2023).
• World Bank (2022). Transport: Overview. 29 Eylül 2022, https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/transport/overview#1 (Erişim tarihi 12.08.2023)
• World Economic Forum (2023). (infographic). Mobility. https://intelligence.weforum.org/topics/a1Gb00000038poVEAQ, (Erişim tarihi 10.10.2023).