The Use of Voters’ Personal Data in Online Political Campaigns and Its Legal Limits

Öz

The process of digitalisation has fundamentally transformed the way election campaigns are conducted, with traditional methods of political campaigning increasingly being replaced by digital advertising activities carried out on online platforms. Beyond these digital campaigns, micro-targeted political advertising has emerged, whereby tailored content is delivered to specific groups of voters through the use of their personal data. Over the past decade, such targeted political advertising practices have been widely criticised for posing serious risks to the integrity of the democratic process and the principle of free and fair elections. Comparative legal studies, particularly within the European Union, demonstrate that strict regulatory frameworks have been introduced to limit the use of sensitive personal data in online election campaigns. This article examines the lawfulness of personal data processing in the preparation and dissemination of personalised political advertisements in Türkiye and highlights the regulatory gaps within the existing framework of the Election Law and the Law on the Protection of Personal Data (KVKK). The original contribution of this study lies in emphasising the urgent need for a clear legal framework governing the use of personalised political advertising and sensitive data in online election campaigns, and in developing reform proposals aimed at explicitly defining and regulating this area under Turkish law.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Personalised political advertising
• micro-targeting
• sensitive personal data
• digital election campaigns
• Law on the Protection of Personal Data (KVKK)
• election law
• democratic integrity

ÇEVRİMİÇİ SİYASİ KAMPANYALARDA SEÇMENİN KİŞİSEL VERİLERİNİN KULLANIMI VE HUKUKİ SINIRLAR

Öz

Dijitalleşme süreci, seçim kampanyalarının yürütülme biçimini köklü şekilde dönüştürmüş; geleneksel propaganda yöntemlerinin yerini giderek daha fazla, çevrimiçi platformlarda yürütülen dijital reklam faaliyetleri almıştır. Bu dijital kampanyaların bir adım ötesinde, seçmenlerin kişisel verileri kullanılarak belirli seçmen gruplarına özel içeriklerin sunulduğu kişiselleştirilmiş siyasi reklamlar (micro-targeted political advertising) ortaya çıkmıştır. Son on yılda, bu tür hedeflenmiş reklamların demokratik sürecin bütünlüğü ve serbest seçim ilkesi açısından ciddi riskler doğurduğu vurgulanmıştır. Karşılaştırmalı hukuk incelemeleri, özellikle Avrupa Birliği’nde, hassas kişisel verilerin çevrimiçi seçim kampanyalarında kullanılmasına ilişkin sıkı düzenlemelerin getirildiğini göstermektedir. Bu makale, Türkiye’de kişiselleştirilmiş siyasi reklamların hazırlanması ve yayımı sürecinde kişisel veri kullanımının hukuka uygunluğunu değerlendirmekte ve mevcut Seçim Kanunu ile Kişisel Verilerin Korunması Kanunu (KVKK) çerçevesindeki boşluklara dikkat çekmektedir. Çalışmanın özgün katkısı, çevrimiçi seçim kampanyalarında kişiselleştirilmiş reklamların ve hassas verilerin kullanımına ilişkin açık bir hukuki çerçevenin oluşturulmasının aciliyetini vurgulamak ve bu alanın Türk hukukunda açıkça tanımlanmasına yönelik reform önerileri geliştirmektir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• kişiselleştirilmiş siyasi reklam
• mikro-hedefleme
• hassas kişisel veri
• dijital seçim kampanyaları
• KVKK
• seçim hukuku
• demokratik bütünlük.

Kaynakça

1. Abbas GM, ‘The Influence of Political Advertising on Voter Behavior: A Study on How Targeted Ads Shape Voter Preferences and Engagement’ (2024) 1(2) Interdisciplinary Journal of Humanities, Media, and Political Science 185-193.
2. Barclay A, Gibson R and Dommett K, ‘The regulatory ecosystem of data driven campaigning in the UK’ (2023) Frontiers in Political Science 1-13.
3. Barocas S, ‘The Price of Precision: Voter Microtargeting and Its Potential Harms to the Democratic Process’ (2012) Proceedings of the First Edition Workshop on Politics, Elections and Data (PLEAD’12) ACM International Conference on Information and Knowledge Management 31-36.
4. Bartlett J, Smith J and Acton R, The Future of Political Campaigning (Demos, July 2018).
5. Bayer J, ‘Double Harm to Voters: Data-Driven Micro-Targeting and Democratic Public Discourse’ (2020) 9(1) Internet Policy Review 1-17.
6. Bulka T, ‘Algorithms and Misinformation: The Constitutional Implications of Regulating Microtargeting’ (2022) 32(4) Fordham Intellectual Property, Media and Entertainment Law Journal Article 6, 1107-1146.
7. Blasi Casagran C and Vermeulen M, ‘Reflections on the murky legal practices of political micro-targeting from a GDPR perspective’ (2021) 11(4) International Data Privacy Law 348-359.
8. Bon E, Dommett K, Gibson R, Kruikemeier S and Lecheler S, ‘Are Certain Types of Microtargeting More Acceptable? Comparing US, German, and Dutch Citizens’ Attitudes’ (2024) 12 Media and Communication Article 8520, 1-19.

9. Campaign Legal Center, ‘Defending Transparency Rules in Washington State (Washington State v Meta Platforms Inc)’ erişim tarihi: 21.02.2026.
10. Cavaliere P, Mude H, Bonaventura I and Galindo Sanchez M, Micro-Targeting in Political Campaigns: A Comparative Analysis of Legal Frameworks, (2021) University of Edinburgh Law School and Privacy International 1-44.
11. Chester J and Montgomery KC, ‘The Role of Digital Marketing in Political Campaigns’ (2017) 6(4) Internet Policy Review https://doi.org/10.14763/2017.4.773.
12. Council of Europe, Guidelines on the Protection of Individuals with regard to the Processing of Personal Data by and for Political Campaigns erişim tarihi: 26.10.2025.
13. Das S, ‘Reform UK tracked private user information without consent’ The Guardian erişim tarihi: 24.02.2026.
14. Davis K, A Case for Regulating Political Microtargeting: How the Messaging of Meta Ads in the 2024 U.S. Presidential Election Varied by Age, Gender, and State (University of Chicago 2024) 1-84.
15. Decker H, ‘The Role of Content Personalisation in Political Social Media Campaigning: A Review of Political Microtargeting’ (2025) 35 Zeitschrift für Politikwissenschaft 83–98.
16. Devran Y and Özcan ÖF, ‘Siyasal İletişimde “Araç” Öncelliğinden “Mikro Hedefe” Uzanan Yaklaşımlar: Yapay Zeka Teknolojisinin Mikro Hedef Kitlenin Belirlenmesinde ve İletişiminde Kullanımı’ (2020) 24(4) Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi 1977-1992.
17. Dobber T, Ó Fathaigh R and Zuiderveen Borgesius FJ, ‘The Regulation of Online Political Micro-Targeting in Europe’ (2019) 8(4) Internet Policy Review. 1-20.
18. Dowling M-E, ‘Mitigating microtargeting: Political microtargeting law in Australia and New Zealand’ (2024) 18 Regulation & Governance 987-999.
19. Eskens S, ‘The Role of the Regulation on the Transparency and Targeting of Political Advertising and the European Media Freedom Act in the EU’s Anti-Disinformation Strategy’ (2025) 58 Computer Law & Security Review 106-185.
20. European Union, Regulation (EU) of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Transparency and Targeting of Political Advertising (PE-CONS 90/23, 29 February 2024) erişim tarihi: 26.10.2025.
21. Federal Trade Commission, ‘FTC Imposes $5 Billion Penalty and Sweeping New Privacy Restrictions on Facebook’ (24 July 2019) erişim tarihi: 21.02.2026.
22. Global Witness, ‘Who micro-targeted political ads more: Trump or Biden campaign?’ erişim tarihi: 3.01.2026.
23. Gibson R, Bon E and Dommett K, ‘“I always feel like somebody’s watching me”: What do the U.S. electorate know about political micro-targeting and how much do they care?’ (2024) 4 Journal of Quantitative Description: Digital Media 1-70.
24. Goga O, ‘Disinformation, Micro-Targeting and Political Advertising in Online Platforms’ in Eva Poptcheva and others, AIvolution: AI and Digital Technologies in the European Union (Renew Europe 2024) 21–28.
25. Guimaraes e Silva LC, Deceptive Influencing as a Harm to Democratic Politics: Warding off Political Manipulation through Micro-Targeting with a Limited Right Not to Be Profiled (PhD thesis, King’s College London 2024) 1–284.
26. Harker M, ‘Political Advertising Revisited: Digital Campaigning and Protecting Democratic Discourse’ (2020) 40(1) Legal Studies 1-54.
27. Hirsch M, Stubenvoll M, Binder A and Matthes J, ‘Beneficial or Harmful? How (Mis)Fit of Targeted Political Advertising on Social Media Shapes Voter Perceptions’ (2024) 53(1) Journal of Advertising 19-35.
28. Human Rights Watch, Trapped in a Web: The Exploitation of Personal Data in Hungary’s 2022 Elections (December 2022) erişim tarihi: 26.10.2025.
29. Information Regulator (South Africa), Guidance Note on the Processing of Personal Information of a Voter by a Political Party in Terms of the Protection of Personal Information Act 4 of 2013 (28 January 2019).
30. Information Commissioner’s Office, Investigation into the Use of Data Analytics in Political Campaigns: A Report to Parliament (Information Commissioner’s Office, 6 November 2018).
31. International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA), Online Political Advertising and Microtargeting: The Latest Legal, Ethical, Political and Technological Evolutions (Webinar Series Report, International IDEA 2020).
32. Jansen M-P, Meier Y and Krämer NC, ‘Seeing through the ad? An investigation of persuasion awareness, coping mechanisms, and credibility for targeted political advertisements’ (2026) 45(7) Behaviour & Information Technology 1431-1449.
33. Johnston N, Electoral Registers and Access to Them (House of Commons Library Research Briefing No 01020, 6 January 2026) 1-44.
34. Karaca MF, ‘2023 Cumhurbaşkanlığı Seçiminde Sosyal Medya Kullanımı: Instagram ve X Üzerine Bir İnceleme’ (2024) 13(1) İnönü Üniversitesi Uluslararası Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 136–175.
35. Kreiss D, ‘Micro-Targeting, the Quantified Persuasion’ (2017) 6(4) Internet Policy Review https://doi.org/10.14763/2017.4.774.
36. King JM, ‘Microtargeted Political Ads: An Intractable Problem’ (2020) 24 Boston University Law Review 102: 1129-1167.
37. Kişisel Verileri Koruma Kurumu, Seçim Faaliyetlerinde Kişisel Verilerin Korunması Rehberi (KVKK Yayınları No 45, Ankara 2023) erişim tarihi: 27.12.2025.
38. Kröger JL and others, ‘Mitigating the Risks of Political Microtargeting – Guidance for Policymakers, Civil Society, and Development Cooperation’ (SSRN Electronic Journal 2024) 1-64.
39. Kröger JL, Errenst E, Nau N and Ojanperä S, ‘Promises and Risks of Political Microtargeting’ in Mitigating the Risks of Political Microtargeting (GIZ 2024) 10–17.
40. Kröger JL, Errenst E, Nau N and Ojanperä S, ‘Regulating Political Microtargeting’ in Mitigating the Risks of Political Microtargeting (GIZ 2024) 31–49.
41. Kruschinski S and Haller A, ‘Restrictions on Data-Driven Political Micro-Targeting in Germany’ (2023) Internet Policy Review 1-23.
42. Machado M, ‘Targeted Political Advertising and Data Protection Policies: A Comparison of Germany and the United States’ (Centre International de Formation Européenne 2021) 1-70.
43. Marret C, ‘The Impact of Social Media on Elections: Disinformation and Micro-Targeting Advertising in the 2019 EU Elections’ (NUPRI Working Paper 4, University of São Paulo 2020) 1-21.
44. Matthes J, Hirsch M, Stubenvoll M, Binder A, Kruikemeier S, Lecheler S and Otto L, ‘Understanding the democratic role of perceived online political micro-targeting: longitudinal effects on trust in democracy and political interest’ (2022) 19(4) Journal of Information Technology & Politics 435-448.
45. Medina Serrano JC, Papakyriakopoulos O and Hegelich S, ‘Exploring Political Ad Libraries for Online Advertising Transparency’ (Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency, ACM New York 2020).
46. Mehta S and Erickson K, ‘Can online political targeting be rendered transparent? Prospects for campaign oversight using the Facebook Ad Library’ (2022) 11(1) Internet Policy Review 1-31.
47. Meta Platforms, ‘Ending Political, Electoral and Social Issue Advertising in the EU in Response to Incoming European Regulation’ erişim tarihi: 21.02.2026.
48. NOYB – European Center for Digital Rights, ‘Political microtargeting on Facebook: An election promise just for you!’ erişim tarihi: 02.01.2026.
49. Office of Representative Anna G Eshoo, ‘Rep Eshoo reintroduces legislation to ban microtargeted political ads’ erişim tarihi: 03.01.2026.
50. Schwaiger J, Freiner R and Trepte S, ‘Political Microtargeting and Online Privacy: A Theoretical Approach to Understanding Users’ Privacy Behaviors’ (2021) 9(4) Media and Communication 158–169.
51. Simchon A, Edwards M and Lewandowsky S, ‘The persuasive effects of political microtargeting in the age of generative artificial intelligence’ (2024) 3 PNAS Nexus 1, 1-5.
52. Simon E, ‘Solutions for Regulating Microtargeted Political Advertising’ (Civil Liberties Union for Europe December 2020) 1-16.
53. Stephenson R, Rinceanu J and Bovermann MA, ‘Regulating Political Advertising in the EU: Transparency Without Accountability’ (2025) 20 Eucrim – European Law Forum 90-97.
54. Van Gils F, Müller W and Prüfer J, ‘Microtargeting, Voters’ Unawareness, and Democracy’ (2025) 41(2) Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 634–653.
55. Najafi, A., Mugurtay, N., Zouzou, Y. et al. First public dataset to study 2023 Turkish general election. Sci Rep (2024) 14, 8794.
56. Witzleb N, Paterson M. Micro-targeting in Political Campaigns: Political Promise and Democratic Risk. In: Kohl U, Eisler J, eds. Data-Driven Personalisation in Markets, Politics and Law. Cambridge University Press; 2021:223-240.
57. Zuiderveen Borgesius FJ and others, ‘Online Political Microtargeting: Promises and Threats for Democracy’ (2018) 14(1) Utrecht Law Review 82-96.