Adaptation of the Edmonton Narrative Norms Instrument Narrative Tool into Turkish for Evaluating Language Development
Yıl 2025,
Cilt: 8 Sayı: 1, 7 - 18, 30.04.2025
Pelin Piştav Akmeşe
Öz
A narrative is one of the most common verbal language expressions that the children use very often to express themselves. The analysis of the narrative provides clinicians with detail information about how children’s language development. The aim of our project is to adapt The Edmonton Narrative Norms Instrument (ENNI) narrative instrument into Turkish language to evaluate language development of children. For this purpose, the Turkish Early Language Development Test (TEDIL) and ENNI were administered to A story set 356 and B story set 261 in children with typical development and 87 children with hearing loss aged between 4 and 8 years. Data taken from language sample convert to transcription first by using language sample analysis program and then data were analysed with SPSS 24.0 package program. As a result of the study, the ENNI Narrative Instrument was adapted into Turkish, and a database was created for typically developing children in the A and B story sets and for children with hearing loss in the A story set.
Kaynakça
-
Abdalla, F., Mahfoudhi, A., & Alhudhainah, S. (2020). Structural development of
narratives in Arabic: Task complexity, age, and cultural factors. Language,
Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 51(2), 405-415.
-
Acarlar, F., Miller, J., & Johnston, J. (2020). Systematic Analysis of Language
Transcripts (SALT), Turkish Research Version 18 [Computer Software].
Madison, WI USA: SALT Software, LLC.
-
Akti, B. (2025). İşitme kayıplı çocukların öyküleme becerilerinin değerlendirilmesi.
[Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi]. Ege Üniversitesi.
-
Boons T., Raeve L. D., Langereis, M., Peeraer, L., Wouters, J., & Wieringen, A.
(2013). Expressive vocabulary, morphology, syntax and narrative skills
in profoundly deaf children after early cochlear implantation. Research in
Developental Disabilities, 34(6), 2008-2022.
-
Botting, N. (2002). Narrative as a tool for the assessment of inguistic and pragmatic
impairments. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 18, 1-21.
-
Boudreau, D.M. (2007). Narrative abilities in children with language impairments.
R. Paul (Eds.), Language Disorders from a Developmental Perspective (p.331
356). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
-
Crosson, J., & Geers A. (2001). Analysis of Narrative Ability in Children with
Cochlear Implants. Ear and Hearing, 22(5), 381-394.
-
Dickinson, D. K., Nesbitt, K. T., & Hofer, K. G. (2019). Effects of language on initial
reading: Direct and indirect associations between code and language from
preschool to first grade. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 49, 122-137.
-
Fivush, R., Brotman, M. A., Buckner, J. P., & Goodman, S. H. (2000). Gender
differences in parent–child emotion narratives. Sex Roles, 42, 233–253.
-
Fivush, R., & Buckner, J. P. (2003). Constructing gender and identity through
autobiographical narratives. R. Fivush & C. Haden (Eds.), Autobiographical
memory and the construction of a narrative self: Developmental and cultural
perspectives (pp. 149–168). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
-
Gagarina, N., Klop, D., Kunnari, S., Tantele, K., Välimaa, T., Bohnacker, U. &
Walters, J. (2019). MAIN: Multilingual Assessment Instrument for Narratives.
Revised version. ZAS Papers in Linguistics, 63.
-
Gagarina, N. V., Klop, D., Kunnari, S., Tantele, K., Välimaa, T., Balčiūnienė, I., ... &
Walters, J. (2012). MAIN: Multilingual assessment instrument for narratives.
ZAS papers in linguistics, 56, 155-155.
-
Gagné, A., & Crago, M. (2010). The use of the ENNI to assess story grammar
comtency of school-aged French speaking children with and without specific
language impairment. Canadian Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and
Audiology, 34(4), 231–245.
-
Geers, A. E., & Brenner, C. (2003). Background and educational characteristics of
prelingually deaf children implanted by five years of age. Ear and Hearing,
24, 2- 14.
-
Giustolisi, B., Vernice, M., Guasti, M. T., Papagno, C., Cecchetto, C., Giuliani, A., &
Burdo, S. (2019). Narrative skills in Italian pre-school children with cochlear
implants. Effects of late linguistic exposure on a late acquired domain. Lingue
e linguaggio, 18(1), 3-24.
-
Işıtan, S. (2010). Normal gelişim gösteren ve Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu
tanılı çocukların anlatı analizine dayalı dil becerilerinin karşılaştırılmalı olarak
incelenmesi [Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi]. Hacettepe Üniversitesi.
Jones, A. C., Toscano, E., Botting, N., Marshall, C. R., Atkinson, J. R., Denmark, T.,
-
... Morgan, G. (2016). Research in Developmental Disabilities Narrative skills
in deaf children who use spoken English: Dissociations between macro and
microstructural devices. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 59, 268–282.
Kılıç, A. (2020). İşitme kayıplı çocukların öyküleme becerilerinin değerlendirilmesi
[Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi]. Ege Üniversitesi.
-
Kırcaali-İftar, G., & Tekin, E. (1997). Tek Denekli AraştırmaYöntemleri. Ankara:
Türk Psikologlar Derneği Yayınları.
-
Piştav Akmeşe, P. Edmonton Narrative Norms Instrument Öyküleme Aracının Türkçeye Uyarlanması
TJAHR 2025;8(1):7−18
-
Küntay, A. (2002). Development of the expression of ındefiniteness: presenting new
referents in Turkish picture-series stories. Discourse Processes, 33(1), 77-101.
-
Lee, J. Y. (2013). The use of the ENNI to assess narrative abilities of young Korean
children. University of Alberta (Canada).
-
Majorano, M., Persici, V., Santangelo, M., Ferrari, R., Bertelli, B., Florit, E.,
... ve Cuda, D. (2024). Narrative skills and language comprehension in
preschool children with cochlear implants: A comparison with children
with Developmental Language Disorder or typical development. Journal of
Communication Disorders, 109, 106424.
-
Maviş, İ., Tunçer, M., & Gagarina, N. (2016). Macrostructure components in
narrations of Turkish–German bilingual children. Applied Psycholinguistics,
37(1), 69-89.
-
Maviş, İ., Tunçer, A. M., & Balo, S. S. (2020). The adaptation of MAIN to Turkish.
ZAS Papers in Linguistics, 64, 249-256.
-
Meier, A. (2020). Early growth trajectories of narrative language development:
Sex differences in microstructural and macrostructural skills. Michigan State
University.
-
Murri, A., Cuda, D., Guerzoni, L., & Fabrizi, E. (2015). Narrative abilities in early
implanted children. The Laryngoscope, 125(7), 1685-1690.
-
Morrow, L. M. (1985). Retelling stories: A strategy for improving young children’s
comprehension, concept of story structure, and oral language complexity. The
elementary school journal, 85(5), 647-661.
-
Munoz, M. L., Gillam, R. B., Pe˜na, E. D., & Gulley-Faehnle, A. (2003). Measures
of language development in fictional narratives of Latino children. Language,
Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 34, 332–342.
-
O’Neill, D.K., Pearce, M.J., & Pick, J.L. (2004). Preschool children’s narratives
and performance on the Peabody Individualized Achievement Test Revised:
Evidence of a relation between early narrative and later mathematical ability.
First Language, 24, 149-183.
-
Özcan, M. (2007). Developmental Differences in the Use of Tense Aspect Modality in
Narratives. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 32(32), 221-231.
-
Pistav Akmese, P., & Acarlar, F. (2016). Using narrative to ınvestigate language skills
of children who are deaf and with hard of hearing. Educational Research and
Reviews, 11(15), 1367-1381.
-
Piştav Akmeşe, P., & Başkan Çelikli, C. (2021). 6-8 yaş arası çocukların dil becerilerinin
öyküleme yoluyla değerlendirilmesi. Ana Dili Eğitimi Dergisi, 9(3), 947-965.
-
Piştav Akmeşe, P., & Kanmaz, S. (2021). Narrative to investigate language skills
of preschool children. International Electronic Journal of Elementary
Education, 14(1), 9-22.
-
Ralli, A. M., Kazali, E., Kanellou, M., Mouzaki, A., Antoniou, F., Diamanti, V., &
Papaioannou, S. (2021). Oral language and story retelling during preschool and
primary school years: developmental patterns and interrelationships. Journal of
Psycholinguistic Research, 1-17.
-
Reuterskiöld, C., Ibertsson, T., Sahlén, B. (2010). Venturing Beyond the Sentence
Level: Narrative Skills in Children with Hearing Loss. The Volta Review,
110(3), 389–406.
-
Roulstone, S., Loader, S., Northstone, K., & Beveridge, M. (2002). The speech
and language of children aged 25 months: Descriptive data from the Avon
Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Early Child Development and
Care, 172, 259–268.
-
Schneider, P., Dubé, R.V., & Hayward, D. (2005). The Edmonton Narrative Norms
Instrument. University of Alberta Faculty of Rehabilitation Medicine. http:://
rehabmed.ualberta.ca/spa/ennı
-
Schneider, P., Hayward, D., & Dube, R.V. (2006). Storyretelling from pictures using
the Edmonton Narrative Norms Instrument. Journal of Speech Pathology and
Audiology, 30(4), 224-238.
-
Selvi Balo, S. (2022). Türkçe konuşan tek dı̇llı̇ tı̇pı̇k gelı̇şı̇m gösteren ve gelı̇şı̇msel
dı̇l bozukluğu olan çocuklarin anlati becerı̇lerı̇nı̇n MAİN-TR aracılığıyla
karşılaştırılması: Uzaktan çevrı̇mı̇çı̇ değerlendı̇rme [Yayımlanmamış doktora
tezi]. Anadolu Üniversitesi.
-
Sheldon, A., & Engstrom, H. (2005). Two systems of mutual engagement: The
co-construction of gendered narrative styles by American preschoolers. J.
Thornborrow & J. Coates (Eds.), The sociolinguistics of narrative (pp. 171
192). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
-
Shunhua, L., & Tianlong, Q. (2023). A Tale of Age and Abilities: Analyzing Narrative
Macrostructure Development in Chinese Preschoolers Through the Lens of
Story Grammar. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 52(6), 2453-2472.
-
Soares, A.D., Goulart, B.N., & Chiari, B.M. (2010). Narrative competence among
hearingimpaired and normal-hearing children: analytical cross-sectional study.
Sao Paulo Medical Journal, 128(5), 284-288.
-
Stein, N.L., & Glenn, C.G. (1979). An analysis of story comprehension in elementary
school children. R.O. Freedle (Eds.), New directions in discourse processing
(p.53-120). New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
-
Güven, S., & Topbaş, S. (2014). Adaptation of the Test of Early Language Development
(TELD-3) into Turkish: Reliability and Validity Study. International Journal of
Early Childhood Special Education, 6(2), 151-176.
-
Westby, C. E. (2005). Considerations when evaluating literacy skills in American
Indian students. Perspectives on Communication Disorders and Sciences in
Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CLD) Populations, 12(1), 12-15.
-
Zanchi, P., Zampini, L., & Berici, R. (2021). Narrative competence in Italian children
with cochlear implants: a comparison with children matched by chronological
or hearing age. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 35(3), 277-292.
Dil Gelişimini Değerlendirmede Edmonton Narrative Norms Instrument Öyküleme Aracının Türkçeye Uyarlanması
Yıl 2025,
Cilt: 8 Sayı: 1, 7 - 18, 30.04.2025
Pelin Piştav Akmeşe
Öz
Çocukların kendini ifade etmek için en sık kullandığı sözel dili ifade biçimlerinden biri öykülerdir. Öykülerin analizi uzmanlara çocukların dil gelişimine ilişkin ayrıntılı bilgi sağlar. Çalışmanın amacı anadili Türkçe olan çocukların dil gelişimlerini değerlendirmede The Edmonton Narrative Norms Instrument (ENNI) öyküleme aracının Türkçeye uyarlanmasıdır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda, 4;0-8;0 yaşları arasındaki tipik gelişim gösteren 356 çocuğa ENNI öyküleme aracının A öykü seti ve 261 çocuğa B öykü seti, 87 işitme kayıplı çocuğa A öykü seti ve Türkçe Erken Dil Gelişimi Testi (TEDİL) uygulanmıştır. Dil örneğinden alınan veriler öncelikle dil örneği analizi programı kullanılarak çevriyazıya dönüştürüldükten sonra SPSS 24.0 paket programı ile analiz edilmiştir. Çalışmada ENNI Öyküleme Aracı Türkçeye uyarlanarak A ve B öykü setinde tipik gelişen ve A öykü setinde işitme kayıplı çocuklar için veri tabanı oluşturulmuştur.
Etik Beyan
Bu çalışma için Ege Üniversitesi Sosyal ve Beşeri Bilimler Bilimsel Araştırma ve Yayın Etiği Kurulu 16.11.2018 tarih ve 85553214-050.06.04 karar numarası ile onay alınmıştır.
Destekleyen Kurum
Ege Üniversitesi
Teşekkür
Teşekkür
Bu çalışmanın büyük bir bölümü, XXX Üniversitesi Bilimsel Araştırma Projesi tarafından desteklenen Proje Yürütücülüğü PPA tarafından yapılan SGA-20717 nolu proje ile desteklenmiştir.
Ayrıca, çalışmaya katılan ailelere ve çocuklara, Ege Üniversitesi KBB ABD yüksek lisans tez öğrencilerine (Serap Kanmaz., Cansu Başkan Çelikli, Fadime Aybüke Kılıç, Beyza Akti ) özel teşekkürlerimi sunarım.
Kaynakça
-
Abdalla, F., Mahfoudhi, A., & Alhudhainah, S. (2020). Structural development of
narratives in Arabic: Task complexity, age, and cultural factors. Language,
Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 51(2), 405-415.
-
Acarlar, F., Miller, J., & Johnston, J. (2020). Systematic Analysis of Language
Transcripts (SALT), Turkish Research Version 18 [Computer Software].
Madison, WI USA: SALT Software, LLC.
-
Akti, B. (2025). İşitme kayıplı çocukların öyküleme becerilerinin değerlendirilmesi.
[Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi]. Ege Üniversitesi.
-
Boons T., Raeve L. D., Langereis, M., Peeraer, L., Wouters, J., & Wieringen, A.
(2013). Expressive vocabulary, morphology, syntax and narrative skills
in profoundly deaf children after early cochlear implantation. Research in
Developental Disabilities, 34(6), 2008-2022.
-
Botting, N. (2002). Narrative as a tool for the assessment of inguistic and pragmatic
impairments. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 18, 1-21.
-
Boudreau, D.M. (2007). Narrative abilities in children with language impairments.
R. Paul (Eds.), Language Disorders from a Developmental Perspective (p.331
356). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
-
Crosson, J., & Geers A. (2001). Analysis of Narrative Ability in Children with
Cochlear Implants. Ear and Hearing, 22(5), 381-394.
-
Dickinson, D. K., Nesbitt, K. T., & Hofer, K. G. (2019). Effects of language on initial
reading: Direct and indirect associations between code and language from
preschool to first grade. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 49, 122-137.
-
Fivush, R., Brotman, M. A., Buckner, J. P., & Goodman, S. H. (2000). Gender
differences in parent–child emotion narratives. Sex Roles, 42, 233–253.
-
Fivush, R., & Buckner, J. P. (2003). Constructing gender and identity through
autobiographical narratives. R. Fivush & C. Haden (Eds.), Autobiographical
memory and the construction of a narrative self: Developmental and cultural
perspectives (pp. 149–168). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
-
Gagarina, N., Klop, D., Kunnari, S., Tantele, K., Välimaa, T., Bohnacker, U. &
Walters, J. (2019). MAIN: Multilingual Assessment Instrument for Narratives.
Revised version. ZAS Papers in Linguistics, 63.
-
Gagarina, N. V., Klop, D., Kunnari, S., Tantele, K., Välimaa, T., Balčiūnienė, I., ... &
Walters, J. (2012). MAIN: Multilingual assessment instrument for narratives.
ZAS papers in linguistics, 56, 155-155.
-
Gagné, A., & Crago, M. (2010). The use of the ENNI to assess story grammar
comtency of school-aged French speaking children with and without specific
language impairment. Canadian Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and
Audiology, 34(4), 231–245.
-
Geers, A. E., & Brenner, C. (2003). Background and educational characteristics of
prelingually deaf children implanted by five years of age. Ear and Hearing,
24, 2- 14.
-
Giustolisi, B., Vernice, M., Guasti, M. T., Papagno, C., Cecchetto, C., Giuliani, A., &
Burdo, S. (2019). Narrative skills in Italian pre-school children with cochlear
implants. Effects of late linguistic exposure on a late acquired domain. Lingue
e linguaggio, 18(1), 3-24.
-
Işıtan, S. (2010). Normal gelişim gösteren ve Dikkat Eksikliği Hiperaktivite Bozukluğu
tanılı çocukların anlatı analizine dayalı dil becerilerinin karşılaştırılmalı olarak
incelenmesi [Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi]. Hacettepe Üniversitesi.
Jones, A. C., Toscano, E., Botting, N., Marshall, C. R., Atkinson, J. R., Denmark, T.,
-
... Morgan, G. (2016). Research in Developmental Disabilities Narrative skills
in deaf children who use spoken English: Dissociations between macro and
microstructural devices. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 59, 268–282.
Kılıç, A. (2020). İşitme kayıplı çocukların öyküleme becerilerinin değerlendirilmesi
[Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi]. Ege Üniversitesi.
-
Kırcaali-İftar, G., & Tekin, E. (1997). Tek Denekli AraştırmaYöntemleri. Ankara:
Türk Psikologlar Derneği Yayınları.
-
Piştav Akmeşe, P. Edmonton Narrative Norms Instrument Öyküleme Aracının Türkçeye Uyarlanması
TJAHR 2025;8(1):7−18
-
Küntay, A. (2002). Development of the expression of ındefiniteness: presenting new
referents in Turkish picture-series stories. Discourse Processes, 33(1), 77-101.
-
Lee, J. Y. (2013). The use of the ENNI to assess narrative abilities of young Korean
children. University of Alberta (Canada).
-
Majorano, M., Persici, V., Santangelo, M., Ferrari, R., Bertelli, B., Florit, E.,
... ve Cuda, D. (2024). Narrative skills and language comprehension in
preschool children with cochlear implants: A comparison with children
with Developmental Language Disorder or typical development. Journal of
Communication Disorders, 109, 106424.
-
Maviş, İ., Tunçer, M., & Gagarina, N. (2016). Macrostructure components in
narrations of Turkish–German bilingual children. Applied Psycholinguistics,
37(1), 69-89.
-
Maviş, İ., Tunçer, A. M., & Balo, S. S. (2020). The adaptation of MAIN to Turkish.
ZAS Papers in Linguistics, 64, 249-256.
-
Meier, A. (2020). Early growth trajectories of narrative language development:
Sex differences in microstructural and macrostructural skills. Michigan State
University.
-
Murri, A., Cuda, D., Guerzoni, L., & Fabrizi, E. (2015). Narrative abilities in early
implanted children. The Laryngoscope, 125(7), 1685-1690.
-
Morrow, L. M. (1985). Retelling stories: A strategy for improving young children’s
comprehension, concept of story structure, and oral language complexity. The
elementary school journal, 85(5), 647-661.
-
Munoz, M. L., Gillam, R. B., Pe˜na, E. D., & Gulley-Faehnle, A. (2003). Measures
of language development in fictional narratives of Latino children. Language,
Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 34, 332–342.
-
O’Neill, D.K., Pearce, M.J., & Pick, J.L. (2004). Preschool children’s narratives
and performance on the Peabody Individualized Achievement Test Revised:
Evidence of a relation between early narrative and later mathematical ability.
First Language, 24, 149-183.
-
Özcan, M. (2007). Developmental Differences in the Use of Tense Aspect Modality in
Narratives. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 32(32), 221-231.
-
Pistav Akmese, P., & Acarlar, F. (2016). Using narrative to ınvestigate language skills
of children who are deaf and with hard of hearing. Educational Research and
Reviews, 11(15), 1367-1381.
-
Piştav Akmeşe, P., & Başkan Çelikli, C. (2021). 6-8 yaş arası çocukların dil becerilerinin
öyküleme yoluyla değerlendirilmesi. Ana Dili Eğitimi Dergisi, 9(3), 947-965.
-
Piştav Akmeşe, P., & Kanmaz, S. (2021). Narrative to investigate language skills
of preschool children. International Electronic Journal of Elementary
Education, 14(1), 9-22.
-
Ralli, A. M., Kazali, E., Kanellou, M., Mouzaki, A., Antoniou, F., Diamanti, V., &
Papaioannou, S. (2021). Oral language and story retelling during preschool and
primary school years: developmental patterns and interrelationships. Journal of
Psycholinguistic Research, 1-17.
-
Reuterskiöld, C., Ibertsson, T., Sahlén, B. (2010). Venturing Beyond the Sentence
Level: Narrative Skills in Children with Hearing Loss. The Volta Review,
110(3), 389–406.
-
Roulstone, S., Loader, S., Northstone, K., & Beveridge, M. (2002). The speech
and language of children aged 25 months: Descriptive data from the Avon
Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Early Child Development and
Care, 172, 259–268.
-
Schneider, P., Dubé, R.V., & Hayward, D. (2005). The Edmonton Narrative Norms
Instrument. University of Alberta Faculty of Rehabilitation Medicine. http:://
rehabmed.ualberta.ca/spa/ennı
-
Schneider, P., Hayward, D., & Dube, R.V. (2006). Storyretelling from pictures using
the Edmonton Narrative Norms Instrument. Journal of Speech Pathology and
Audiology, 30(4), 224-238.
-
Selvi Balo, S. (2022). Türkçe konuşan tek dı̇llı̇ tı̇pı̇k gelı̇şı̇m gösteren ve gelı̇şı̇msel
dı̇l bozukluğu olan çocuklarin anlati becerı̇lerı̇nı̇n MAİN-TR aracılığıyla
karşılaştırılması: Uzaktan çevrı̇mı̇çı̇ değerlendı̇rme [Yayımlanmamış doktora
tezi]. Anadolu Üniversitesi.
-
Sheldon, A., & Engstrom, H. (2005). Two systems of mutual engagement: The
co-construction of gendered narrative styles by American preschoolers. J.
Thornborrow & J. Coates (Eds.), The sociolinguistics of narrative (pp. 171
192). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
-
Shunhua, L., & Tianlong, Q. (2023). A Tale of Age and Abilities: Analyzing Narrative
Macrostructure Development in Chinese Preschoolers Through the Lens of
Story Grammar. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 52(6), 2453-2472.
-
Soares, A.D., Goulart, B.N., & Chiari, B.M. (2010). Narrative competence among
hearingimpaired and normal-hearing children: analytical cross-sectional study.
Sao Paulo Medical Journal, 128(5), 284-288.
-
Stein, N.L., & Glenn, C.G. (1979). An analysis of story comprehension in elementary
school children. R.O. Freedle (Eds.), New directions in discourse processing
(p.53-120). New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
-
Güven, S., & Topbaş, S. (2014). Adaptation of the Test of Early Language Development
(TELD-3) into Turkish: Reliability and Validity Study. International Journal of
Early Childhood Special Education, 6(2), 151-176.
-
Westby, C. E. (2005). Considerations when evaluating literacy skills in American
Indian students. Perspectives on Communication Disorders and Sciences in
Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CLD) Populations, 12(1), 12-15.
-
Zanchi, P., Zampini, L., & Berici, R. (2021). Narrative competence in Italian children
with cochlear implants: a comparison with children matched by chronological
or hearing age. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 35(3), 277-292.