Geological Formation Environments of Rare Earth Elements: Examples from Around the World and Türkiye

Öz

Rare earth elements (REEs) are critical raw materials used in strategic fields such as defense, energy, electronics, lasers, and sensor technologies, and particularly in the production of permanent magnets including NdFeB and SmCo types. Since the early 2000s, the global supply of rare earth elements has become dominated by China for mining, beneficiation, and separation processes, as non-Chinese producers have lost competitiveness due to high capital requirements and the costs imposed by environmental regulations. This review addresses the geological formation environments, deposit types, and global reserve–resource distributions of REEs within an integrated framework. REE mineralization occurs within primary geological sources such as carbonatites, alkaline magmatic systems, and iron oxide copper–gold (IOCG) deposits, as well as in secondary sources including ion-adsorption clays, placers, and lateritic formations. Primary sources are generally enriched in light REEs and are characterized by high-cost production processes, whereas heavy REEs are predominantly obtained from secondary sources. Globally, REE reserves are estimated to be approximately 90–120 Mt, while potential resources are on the order of ~480 Mt, with China occupying a leading position in terms of both reserves and resources. In Europe, Greenland, Sweden, Finland, Norway, Germany, and Türkiye are among the regions with significant REE potential. In Türkiye, the principal REE areas defined at the deposit scale are the Eskişehir–Kızılcaören (Beylikova) and Malatya–Kuluncak districts. These districts are associated with alkaline magmatism and display enrichment particularly in Nd and Pr (beyond La and Ce), rendering them strategically important for NdFeB permanent magnet production. Recent studies conducted by Eti Maden indicate that the Eskişehir–Kızılcaören area hosts a large-scale resource of approximately 694 Mt with total REE grades of 1.5–1.8%. The Eskişehir–Kızılcaören area is related to the extensional tectonic regime of Western Anatolia, whereas the Malatya–Kuluncak area is associated with post-collisional alkaline magmatism of Late Cretaceous–Early Paleocene age developed within the Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex. The presence of similar alkaline systems across Türkiye indicates significant potential for REE exploration and critical mineral strategies. This synthesis provides a comprehensive geological reference framework for the development of REE exploration strategies, the diversification of global supply chains, and evaluation of Türkiye’s REE potential.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Rare earth elements
• critical minerals
• primary geological resources
• secondary geological resources
• alkaline magmatism
• lateritization

Nadir Toprak Elementlerinin Jeolojik Oluşum Ortamları: Dünya ve Türkiye’den Örnekler / Geological Formation Environments of Rare Earth Elements: Examples from Around the World and Türkiye

Öz

Nadir toprak elementleri (NTE), başta NdFeB ve SmCo tipi kalıcı mıknatıslar olmak üzere savunma sanayi, enerji, elektronik, lazer ve sensör teknolojileri gibi stratejik alanlarda kullanılan kritik hammaddelerdir. 2000’li yıllardan itibaren küresel nadir toprak elementleri arzı, yüksek sermaye gereksinimleri ve çevresel düzenlemelerin getirdiği maliyetler nedeniyle Çin dışındaki üreticilerin rekabet gücünü yitirmesi sonucunda, madencilik, zenginleştirme ve ayırma süreçlerinde Çin’in baskın olduğu bir yapı kazanmıştır. Bu derleme çalışmasında, NTE’lerin jeolojik oluşum ortamları, yatak tipleri ve küresel rezerv-kaynak dağılımları bütüncül bir çerçevede ele alınmaktadır. NTE mineralizasyonları, karbonatitler, alkalen magmatik sistemler ve Demir Oksit Bakır Altın (DOBA) yatakları gibi birincil jeolojik kaynaklar ile iyon-adsorpsiyon killeri, plaserler ve lateritik oluşumlar gibi ikincil kaynaklar içerisinde gelişmektedir. Birincil kaynaklar genellikle hafif NTE’lerce zengin ve yüksek maliyetli üretim süreçlerine sahipken, ağır NTE’ler çoğunlukla ikincil kaynaklardan elde edilmektedir. Dünya genelinde NTE rezervlerinin yaklaşık 90-120 Mt, potansiyel kaynakların ise ~480 Mt düzeyinde olduğu kabul edilmekte olup, Çin hem rezerv hem de kaynak bazında lider konumdadır. Avrupa’da Grönland, İsveç, Finlandiya, Norveç, Almanya ve Türkiye önemli NTE potansiyeline sahip bölgeler arasında yer almaktadır. Türkiye’de yatak ölçeğinde tanımlanmış başlıca NTE alanları Eskişehir-Kızılcaören (Beylikova) ve Malatya-Kuluncak sahalarıdır. Bu sahalar, alkalen magmatizma ile ilişkili olup özellikle Nd ve Pr (La ve Ce dışında) bakımından zengin karakter sergilemekte ve NdFeB mıknatıs üretimi açısından stratejik öneme sahiptir. Eti Maden tarafından yapılan son çalışmalar, Eskişehir–Kızılcaören sahasında yaklaşık 694 Mt büyüklüğünde ve %1,5–1,8 toplam NTE tenörüne sahip büyük ölçekli bir kaynak bulunduğunu göstermektedir. Eskişehir–Kızılcaören sahası Batı Anadolu’daki açılmalı tektonik rejimle ilişkiliyken, Malatya–Kuluncak sahası Orta Anadolu Kristalen Kompleksi’nde gelişen Geç Kretase–Erken Paleosen yaşlı çarpışma sonrası alkalen magmatizmasıyla ilişkilidir. Türkiye genelinde benzer alkalen sistemlerin varlığı, NTE aramacılığı ve kritik mineral stratejileri açısından önemli bir potansiyel sunduğunu göstermektedir. Bu sentez, NTE arama stratejilerinin geliştirilmesine, küresel tedarik zincirlerinin çeşitlendirilmesine ve Türkiye’nin NTE potansiyelinin değerlendirilmesine yönelik çalışmalara bütüncül bir jeolojik referans çerçevesi sağlamaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Nadir toprak elementleri
• kritik mineraller
• birincil jeolojik kaynaklar
• ikincil jeoloji kaynakları
• alkalen magmatizma
• lateritleşme

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