Araştırma Makalesi
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Arap İsyanları Sonrası Suriye’nin Sosyo-politik Dönüşümüne Eşitsiz ve Bileşik Kalkınmacı Bir Yaklaşım: “Savaş Ekonomisi” ve “Yeniden İnşa” Süreçlerinde Uluslararası ve Yerel Dinamiklerin Etkileşimi

Yıl 2022, , 47 - 81, 29.06.2022
https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.1000671

Öz

Bu çalışma “uluslararası” kavramını öne çıkararak Arap İsyanları sonrası Suriye’deki sosyo-politik dönüşümü Leon Troçki’nin Eşitsiz ve Bileşik Kalkınma (EBK) yaklaşımı ile incelemektedir. Literatürdeki analizler gerek yöntemsel ulusçuluk gerekse bütüncül bir çerçeveye sahip olmayışları sebebiyle Arap İsyanları sonrası Suriye’deki sosyo-politik dönüşümü genellikle otoriter Beşir Esat rejiminin dayanıklılığı ve neoliberal dönüşümün dinamikleri çerçevesinde incelemektedir. Bu bağlamda, çalışmanın temel sorunsalı yöntemsel olarak uluslararası ve yerel dinamiklerin etkileşiminin Suriye’deki sosyo-politik dönüşüme etkilerini ortaya koymaktır. Bu amaçla Arap İsyanları sonrası Suriye’nin sosyo-politik dönüşümünde belirleyici olduğu düşünülen iki sürecin - “Savaş Ekonomisi” ve “Yeniden İnşa” – sonuçları incelenmektedir. Çalışma sonuç olarak Suriye’deki sosyo-politik dönüşümün anlaşılmasında Arap İsyanları öncesi dönemde olduğu neoliberal politik ve ekonomik dinamiklerin etkili olduğunu ve dönüşümün bölgesel ve küresel jeopolitik rekabet süreçleriyle iç içe geçmesinin de etkisiyle toplumsal eşitsizlik ve baskı durumunu daha da ağırlaştırdığını tartışmaktadır.

Kaynakça

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An Uneven and Combined Development Approach to post-Arab Revolts Syria’s Sociopolitical Transformation: The Interaction between International and Local Dynamics in the processes of “War Economy” and “Reconstruction”

Yıl 2022, , 47 - 81, 29.06.2022
https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.1000671

Öz

This study utilizes Leon Trotsky’s Uneven and Combined Development approach to analyze post-Arab Revolts Syria’s sociopolitical transformation by focusing on the concept of “international”. The existing analyses examine the post-Arab Revolts Syria’s sociopolitical transformation by focusing on the resilience of the authoritarian Bashar Assad regime and the dynamics of neoliberal transformation, due to methodological nationalism and lacking of a holistic framework. In this respect, the main argument of this study is to present the effects of interaction between international and local dynamics on Syria’s sociopolitical transformation. To this end, the study analyzes the outcomes of two distinctive processes – “War Economy” and “Reconstruction” – which are thought to be decisive regarding post-Arab Revolts Syria’s sociopolitical transformation. The conclusion of the study is two-fold. Firstly, the neoliberal political-economic dynamics are effective in understanding the Syria’s socio-political transformation – similar to the pre-Arab Revolts period. Secondly, the merging of the dynamics of sociopolitical transformation with the global and regional geopolitical competition process has further deteriorated the social unevenness and repression.

Kaynakça

  • Ababsa, M. “The End of a World Drought and Agrarian Transformation in Northeast Syria (2007–2010).” In Syria: From Authoritarian Upgrading to Revolution?, edited by R. Hinnebusch. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2015.
  • Abboud, S. “Economic Transformation and Diffusion of Authoritarian Power in Syria.” In Democratic Transition in the Middle East: Unmaking Power, edited by Sadiki, L., H. Wimmen, and L. Al-Zubaidi, 159–77. New York: Routledge, 2013.
  • ———. “Locating the ‘Social’ in the Social Market Economy.” In Syria from Reform to Revolt: Political Economy and International Relations, edited by R. Hinnebusch and T. Zintl, 45–65. Syracuse,: Syracuse University Press, 2015.
  • ———. “Syrian Trade Policy.” In Syrian Foreign Trade and Economic Reform, edited by Raymond Hinnebusch, 3–28. Fife, Scotland: niversity of St Andrews Centre for Syrian Studies, 2010.
  • ———. “The Economics of War and Peace in Syria,” 2017. https://tcf.org/content/report/economics-war-peace-syria/?agreed=1&session=1.
  • Aboultaif, E. W. “Regional and International Factors That Prolong the Syrian Crisis.” Syria Studies 8, no. 2 (2016): 1–11.
  • Abu-Ismail, K., A. Abdel-Gadir, and H. El-Laithy. “Poverty and Inequality in Syria (1997-2007),” 2011.
  • Akbar, Ali. “Iran’s Soft Power in Syria after the Syrian Civil War.” Mediterranean Politics, June 14, 2021, 1–23. doi:10.1080/13629395.2021.1938856.
  • Akdedian, H. “The Religious Domain Continues to Expand in Syria.” Carnegie Middle East Center, 2019. https://carnegie-mec.org/2019/03/19/religious-domain-continues-to-expand-in-syria-pub-78624.
  • Al-Ahsan, S. “Economic Policy and Class Structure in Syria: 1958–1980.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 16 (1984): 301–23.
  • Al-Khalidi, S. “Syrian Pound Hits New Lows over Regional Tensions—Traders.” Reuters, 2020. https://www.reuters.com/article/syria-economy-pound-idUSL8N29I5PO.
  • AlJazeera. “Iran Signs Deal to Repair Syria’s Power Grid,” 2017. https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2017/9/12/iran-signs-deal-to-repair-syrias-power-grid.
  • Almanasfi, N. “State-Led Urban Development in Syria and the Prospects for Effective Post-Conflict Reconstruction.” Syria Studies 11, no. 1 (2019): 58–99.
  • Arslanian, F. “Growth in Transition and Syria’s Economic Performance.” In Syria’s Economy and the Transition Paradigm, edited by R. Hinnebusch, 33–74. Fife, Scotland: University of St Andrews Centre for Syrian Studies, 2009.
  • Ayubi, N. N. “Etatisme versus Privatization: The Changing Economic Role of the State in Nine Arab Countries.” In Economic Transition in the Middle East: Global Challenges and Adjustment Strategies, 125–66. Egypt: American University of Cairo Press, 2000.
  • ———. “Withered Socialism or Whether Socialism? The Radical Arab States as Populist-Corporatist Regimes.” Third World Quarterly 13, no. 1 (1992): 89–105.
  • Barany, Z. “Comparing the Arab Revolts: The Role of the Military.” Journal of Democracy 22, no. 4 (2011): 24–35.
  • BP. “Statistical Review of World Energy,” 2019. https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2019-full-report.pdf.
  • Chaziza, M. “Soft Balancing Strategy in the Middle East: Chinese and Russian Vetoes in the United Nations Security Council in the Syria Crisis.” China Report 50, no. 3 (2014): 243–58.
  • Daher, J. “The Political Economic Context of Syria’s Reconstruction: A Prospective in Light of a Legacy of Unequal Development.” Badia Fiesolana, 2018.
  • ———. “The Political Economy of Syria: Deepening Pre-War Orientations,” 2020. https://www.arab-reform.net/publication/the-political-economy-of-syria-deepening-pre-war-orientations/.
  • Dahi, O. S., and Y. Munif. “Revolts in Syria: Tracking the Convergence between Authoritarianism and Neoliberalism.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 47, no. 4 (2012): 323–32.
  • Droz-Vincent, P. “The Military amidst Uprisings and Transitions in the Arab World.” In The New Middle East: Protest and Revolution in the Arab World, edited by F. A Gerges, 180–208. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  • ESCWA, and University of St.Andrews. “Syria at War, Five Years On,” 2016. https://archive.unescwa.org/sites/www.unescwa.org/files/publications/files/syria-war-five-years.pdf.
  • Farsoun, S. K. “Class Structure and Social Change in the Arab World.” In The Next Arab Decade, 221–38. Boulder: Westview Press, 1988.
  • ———. “Oil, State, and Social Structure in the Middle East.” Arab Studies Quarterly 10, no. 2 (1988): 155–75.
  • Friberg Lyme, Rune. “Sanctioning Assad’s Syria: Mapping the Economic, Socioeconomic and Political Repercussions of the International Sanctions Imposed on Syria since March 2011.” Copenhagen, 2012. https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/97034/1/729058492.pdf.
  • Gobat, J., K. Kostial, and A. Fedelino. “Syria’s Conflict Economy.” International Monetary Fund 2016, no. 123 (2016): 29. https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/journals/001/2016/123/article-A001-en.xml.
  • Hanieh, A. Money, Markets, and Monarchies. The Gulf Cooperation Council and the Political Economy of the Contemporary Middle East. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018.
  • Hertog, S. “The GCC and Arab Economic Integration: A New Paradigm.” Middle East Policy 14, no. 1 (2007): 52–69.
  • Heydemann, Steven. “Beyond Fragility: Syria and the Challenges of Reconstruction in Fierce States,” 2018. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/FP_20180626_beyond_fragility.pdf.
  • ———. War, Institutions, and Social Change in the Middle East. Edited by University of California Press. London, 2000.
  • Hinnebusch, Raymond. “Syria: From Authoritarian Upgrading to Revolution.” International Affairs 88, no. 1 (2012): 95–113.
  • ———. Syria: Revolution from Above. London: Routledge, 2001.
  • ———. “The Battle over Syria’s Reconstruction.” Global Policy 11, no. 1 (2020): 113–23.
  • Huntington, Samuel P. “The Change to Change: Modernization, Development, and Politics.” Comparative Politics 3, no. 3 (1971): 283–322.
  • ILO. “Gender, Employment and the Informal Economy in Syria,” 2010. http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/--- gender/documents/publication/wcms_144219.pdf.
  • Imady, O. “The Weaponization of Syria’s Reconstruction, a Preliminary Sketch.” Syria Studies 11, no. 1 (2019): 6–21.
  • Ismail, S. “Changing Social Structure, Shifting Alliances and Authoritarianism in Syria.” In Demystifying Syria, edited by F. Lawson, 13–28. London: Saqi Books, 2009.
  • Itany, F. “Geo-Economics: Russia and Iran in Syria.” Syria Studies 11, no. 1 (2019): 23–31.
  • Joya, A. “Syria’s Transition, 1970–2005: From Centralization of the State to Market Economy. In: Paul Zarembka.” In Transitions in Latin America and in Poland and Syria, edited by P. Zarembka, 163–201. London: Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2007.
  • Kadri, Ali. “A Depressive Pre-Arab Uprisings Economic Performance.” In The New Middle East: Protest and Revolution in the Arab World, 80–106. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  • ———. “The Political Economy of the Syrian Crisis.” Working Papers in Technology, Governance and Economic Dynamics. Talinn, 2012.
  • Kamran, Matin. “Lineages of Islamic State: An International Historical Sociology of State (de-)Formation in Iraq.” Journal of Historical Sociology 31, no. 1 (2018): 6–24.
  • Khatip, L. Islamic Revivalism in Syria, The Rise and Fall of Ba’thist Secularism. London: Routledge, 2011.
  • Khlebnikov, A. “Russia and Syrian Military Reform: Challenges and Opportunities,” 2020. https://carnegie-mec.org/2020/03/26/russia-and-syrian-military-reform-challenges-and-opportunities-pub-81154.
  • Lawson, F. “Private Capital and the State in Contemporary Syria.” Middle East Report: Lebanon and Syria: The Geopolitics of Change 203 (1997): 8–30.
  • Leenders, R., and M. Kholoud. “Humanitarianism, State Sovereignty and Authoritarian Regime Maintenance in the Syrian War.” Political Science Quarterly 133, no. 2 (2018): 225–57.
  • Lenin, Vladimir. Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism. London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1937.
  • Marshall, Shana. “Syria and the Financial Crisis: Prospects for Reform?” Middle East Policy 16, no. 2 (2009): 106–15. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4967.2009.00394.x.
  • Marx, Karl. Capital: A Critique of Political Economy Volume 3. London: Penguin/NLR, 1981.
  • ———. Grundrisse. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973.
  • Marzouq, N. “The Syrian Conflict: Selective Socioeconomic Indicators.” In Syria: From National Independence to Proxy War, edited by Matar L. and Kadri A., 115–31. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.
  • Matar, Linda. The Political Economy of Investment in Syria. New York: Palgrave: MacMillan, 2016.
  • ———. “Twilight of ‘State Capitalism’ in Formerly ‘Socialist’ Arab States.” The Journal of North African Studies 18, no. 3 (2013): 416–30.
  • Munif, Y. “The Arab Revolts: The Old Is Dying and the New Cannot Be Born.” Rethinking Marxism 25, no. 2 (2013): 202–17.
  • Perthes, Volker. “A Look at Syria’s Upper Class: The Bourgeoisie and the Ba’th.” Middle East Report 170 (1991): 31–37.
  • ———. Syria under Bashar Al-Assad: Modernisation and the Limits of Change. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
  • ———. “The Syrian Economy in the 1980s.” Middle East Journal 46, no. 1 (1992): 37–58.
  • Philips, C. “Sectarianism and Conflict in Syria.” Third World Quarterly 36, no. 2 (2015): 357–76.
  • Philips, D. L. Frontline Syria: From Revolution to Proxy War. London: I.B. Tauris, 2021.
  • Pierret, T., and K. Selvik. “Limits of ‘Authoritarian Upgrading’ in Syria: Private Welfare, Islamic Charities, and the Rise of the Zayd Movement.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 41, no. 4 (2009): 595–614.
  • Raphaeli, N. “Syria’s Fragile Economy.” Middle East Review of International Affairs 11, no. 2 (2007): 34–51.
  • Richani, N. “The Political Economy and Complex Interdependency of the War System in Syria.” Civil Wars 18, no. 1 (2016): 45–68.
  • Rosenberg, Justin. “Basic Problems in the Theory of Uneven and Combined Development. Part II: Unevenness and Political Multiplicity.” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 23, no. 1 (2010): 165–89.
  • ———. “Results and Prospects: An Introduction to the CRIA Special Issue on UCD.” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 34, no. 2 (2021): 146–63.
  • Rostow, W. The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. London: Cambridge University Press, 1960.
  • Ruiz de Elvira, L., and T. Zintl. Civil Society and the State in Syria: The Outsourcing of Social Responsibility. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2012.
  • Ruiz de Elvira, R. “State-Charity Relations in Syria: Between Reinforcement, Control, and Coercion.” In Civil Society and the State in Syria: The Outsourcing of Social Responsibility, edited by Raymond Hinnebusch, 7–31. Fife, Scotland: University of St Andrews Centre for Syrian Studies, 2012.
  • ———. “Syrian Charities at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century: Their History, Situation, Frames and Challenges.” In Syrian Voices From Pre-Revolution Syria: Civil Society Against All Odds, edited by S. Kawakibi. HIVOS and Knowledge Programme Civil Society in West Asia, 2013.
  • Sabbagh, H. “President Al-Assad Issues Law on Public-Private Partnership.” SANA, 2016. https://sana.sy/en/?p=66150. Said, S. “The Effect of Trade Liberalization on Syrian Industry: The Case of Textile and Olive Oil Industry.” In Syrian Foreign Trade and Economic Reform, edited by Raymond Hinnebusch, 29–62. Fife, Scotland: University of St Andrews Centre for Syrian Studies, 2009.
  • SCPR. “Alienation and Violence, Impact of Syria Crisis Report 2014.” Damascus, 2015. https://www.unrwa.org/sites/default/files/alienation_and_violence_impact_of_the_syria_crisis_in_2014_eng.pdf.
  • ———. “Syria Squandering Humanity Socioeconomic Monitoring Report on Syria.” Damascus, 2014. https://www.unrwa.org/sites/default/files/scpr_report_q3-q4_2013_270514final_3.pdf.
  • Seale, Patrick. Asad of Syria: The Struggle for the Middle East. London: University of California Press, 1988.
  • Seifan, S. “The Reform Paradox in Syria.” In The Road to Economic Reform in Syria, edited by Raymond Hinnebusch, 6–34. Fife, Scotland: University of St Andrews Centre for Syrian Studies, 2011.
  • Siham, A. “The Role of the Syrian Business Elite in the Syrian Conflict: A Class Narrative.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, May 10, 2021, 1–13. doi:10.1080/13530194.2021.1920210.
  • Syria Report. “Government Prioritises Spending on Core Constituency,” 2018. https://www.syria-report.com/news/economy/government-prioritises-spending-core-constituency.
  • Todman, W. “Sieges in Syria: Profiteering from Misery,” 2016. http://education.mei.edu/files/publications/PF14_Todman_sieges_web_0.pdf.
  • Totten, M. J., D. Schenker, and H. Abdul-Hussian. “ARAB SPRING OR ISLAMIST WINTER? Three Views.” World Affairs 174, no. 5 (2012): 23–42.
  • Trotsky, Leon. The History of the Russian Revolution. Chicago: Haymarket Books, 1980.
  • Turkmani, R. “ISIL, JAN and the War Economy in Syria,” 2015. http://www.securityintransition.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/ISIL-JAN-and-the-war-economy-in-Syria1.pdf.
  • Veen, E. Van. “The Geopolitics Of Syria’s Reconstruc-Tion: A Case Of Matryoshka.” Syria Studies 11, no. 1 (2019): 33–56.
  • World Bank. “The Toll of War: The Economic and Social Consequences of the Conflict in Syria,” 2017. http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/syria/publication/the-toll-of-war-the-economic-andsocial-consequences-of-the-conflict-in-syria.
  • ———. “Will Arab Workers Prosper or Be Left Out in the Twenty-First Century.” Washington DC, 1995. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/166341468051251942/pdf/multi-page.pdf.
  • Yazigi, J. “No Going Back: Why Decentralisation Is the Future for Syria.” Policy Brief, 2016. https://ecfr.eu/wp-content/uploads/ECFR185_-_NO_GOING_BACK_-_WHY_DECENTRALISATION_IS_THE_FUTURE_FOR_SYRIA.pdf.
  • ———. “SYRIA’S WAR ECONOMY.” Policy Brief, 2014. https://www.mediterraneanaffairs.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/ECFR97_SYRIA_BRIEF_AW.pdf.
  • Zunes, S. “U.S. POLICY TOWARDS SYRIA AND THE TRIUMPH OF NEOCONSERVATIVISM.” Middle East Policy 11, no. 1 (2004): 52–69.
Toplam 87 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Hikmet Mengüaslan 0000-0003-4836-5108

Yayımlanma Tarihi 29 Haziran 2022
Kabul Tarihi 17 Şubat 2022
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2022

Kaynak Göster

APA Mengüaslan, H. (2022). Arap İsyanları Sonrası Suriye’nin Sosyo-politik Dönüşümüne Eşitsiz ve Bileşik Kalkınmacı Bir Yaklaşım: “Savaş Ekonomisi” ve “Yeniden İnşa” Süreçlerinde Uluslararası ve Yerel Dinamiklerin Etkileşimi. Türkiye Ortadoğu Çalışmaları Dergisi, 9(1), 47-81. https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.1000671

Creative Commons Lisansı

TOÇD'nde yayınlanan makaleler Creative Commons Atıf-GayriTicari 4.0 Uluslararası Lisansı ile lisanslanmıştır.