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The Sudan's Incorporation into the Capitalist World-Economy through Modern Cultivation and Trade of Cotton

Yıl 2024, , 73 - 96, 13.06.2024
https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.1435202

Öz

Before the 19th century, the Sudan had a distinctive social system in which decentralized kingdoms held the political power. The article assumes that this intersocietal system entered a process of incorporation into the capitalist world-economy in the 19th century. Early modernization policies pursued in the Sudan during the Turco-Egyptian administration between 1821-1885 period, known as the Turkiyya. This rule shifted to the Anglo-Egyptian administration in 1899, after British forces defeating the short-lived Mahdist rule. Upon establishment of the new condominium government, the Sudan became a peripheral supplier of the expanding world economy. Throughout the peripheralization, the British gained control of raw materials such as gum arabic and cotton from the Nile valley, which were then transported to factories located in the mainland England. This article investigates economic incorporation process of the Sudan, specifically focusing on the Gezira Scheme, established with a colonial mentality, and mainly based on cotton production. The effect of this process was evident during the 1930s, when the country had been seriously impacted by the global economic crisis of 1929.

Kaynakça

  • ‘Abdel Rahim, M. (1987). Imperialism and nationalism in the Sudan: A study in constitutional and political development 1899-1956. Khartoum: Khartoum University Press and London: Ithaca Press.
  • AbdelRahman, A. A. (1998). The implementation and results of IMF/World Bank-supported agricultural reforms: The case of Sudan’s Gezira Scheme. North African Studies, 5(2), 95-115. https://doi.org/10.1353/nas.1998.0017.
  • Arrighi, G. (1999). The global market. Journal of World-Systems Research, 5. 217-251. https://doi.org/10.5195/jwsr.1999.129.
  • Balci, A. & Kardaş, T. (2023). The Ottoman international system: Power projection, interconnectedness, and the autonomy of frontier polities. Millenium, 51(3), 866-891. https://doi.org/10.1177/03058298231185974.
  • Barnett, T. (2019). The Gezira Scheme: An illusion of development. London and New York: Routledge.
  • Bernal, V. (1997). Colonial moral economy and the discipline of development: The Gezira scheme and “modern” Sudan. Cultural Anthropology, 12(4), 447-479. https://www.jstor.org/stable/656632.
  • Braudel, F., & Wallerstein, I. (2009). History and the social sciences: The longue durée. Review (Fernand Braudel Center), 32(2), 171-203. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40647704.
  • Chase-Dunn, C. (1978). Core-periphery relations: The effects of core competition. Barbara H. Kaplan (Ed.), Social change in the capitalist world economy, (pp. 159-176). Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1978.
  • Chase-Dunn, C., & Grimes, P. (1995). World-systems analysis. Annual Review of Sociology, 21, 387-417. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2083416.
  • Chase-Dunn, C. & Hall, T. D. (2018). Conceptualizing core/periphery hierarchies for comparative study. C. Chase-Dunn & T. D. Hall (Ed.), Core/periphery relations in precapitalist worlds, (pp. 5-44). New York: Routledge, 2018.
  • Collins, C. (1976). Colonialism and class struggle in Sudan. MERIP Reports, 46, 3-20. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3010898.
  • Daly, M. W. (1987). Empire on the Nile: The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 1898–1934. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Davidson, B. (1994). Modern Africa: A social and political history. London and New York: Routledge.
  • Edwards, D. N. (1998). Meroe and the Sudanic kingdoms. Journal of African Studies, 39(2), 175-93. https://www.jstor.org/stable/183595.
  • Ekmekcioğlu, A. & Dere, A. (2023). Toplumsal ekoloji yaklaşımını bölgesel gelişmeler üzerinden yeniden tartışmak. Türkiye Ortadoğu Çalışmaları Dergisi, 10(1), 141-178. https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.1262954.
  • El Zain, M. (1996). Tribes and religion in the Sudan. Review of African Political Economy, 23(70), 523-29. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4006342.
  • Gaitskell, A. (1959). Gezira: A Story of Development in the Sudan. London: Faber and Faber.
  • Hance, W. A. (1954). The Gezira: An example in development. Geographical Review, 44(2), 253-70. https://doi.org/10.2307/212359.
  • Hill, R. (1959). Egypt in the Sudan 1820-1881. London: Oxford University Press.
  • Holt, P. M. (1961). A modern history of the Sudan: From the Funj Sultanate to the present day. London: Longman.
  • James, L. (2008). From slaves to oil. J. Ryle, J. Willis, S. Baldo, J. M. Jok (Ed.), The Sudan handbook, (pp. 130-148). London: The Rift Valley Institute.
  • Kramer, R. S., Lobban, R. A. & Fluehr-Lobban, C. (2013). Historical dictionary of the Sudan: Fourth edition, Plymouth: The Scarecrow Press.
  • Mahmoud, M. E. T. (1981). The Mahdist correctional system in the Sudan: Aspect of ideology and politics. Africa Today, 28(2), 78-86. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4186002.
  • MacLoughlin, P. F. M. (1963). The Sudan’s Gezira scheme: An economic profile. Social and Economic Studies, 12(2), 179-99. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27853731.
  • Mollan, S. (2008). Business, State and Economy: Cotton and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1919-1939. African Economic History, 36, 95-123. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41501704.
  • Mollan, S. (2020). Imperialism and economic development in Sub-Saharan Africa: An economic and business history of Sudan. Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Niblock, T. (1987). Class and power in Sudan: The dynamics of Sudanese politics, 1898-1985. London: The Macmillan Press.
  • O’Fahey, R. S. and Spaulding, J. L. (2017). Kingdoms of the Sudan. New York: Routledge.
  • Tignor, R. (1987). The Sudanese private sector. A historical review. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 25(2), 179-212. https://www.jstor.org/stable/161011.
  • Tvedt, T. (2004). The river Nile in the age of British: Political ecology and the quest for economic power. London: IB Tauris.
  • Verhoeven, H. (2015). Water, civilisation and power in Sudan: The political economy of military-Islamist state building. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Wallerstein, I. (1974a). The modern world-system I: Capitalist agriculture and the origins of the European world-economy in the sixteenth century. New York: Academic Press.
  • Wallerstein, I. (1974b). The rise and future demise of the world capitalist system: Concepts for comparative analysis. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 16(4), 387-415. https://www.jstor.org/stable/178015.
  • Wallerstein, I. (1997). The capitalist world-economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
  • Warburg, G. R. (1989). Some social and economic aspects of Turko-Egyptian rule in the Sudan. Belleten, 53(207-208), 769-795.
  • Warburg, G. R. (1991). Turco-Egyptian Sudan: A recent historiographical controversy. Die Welt des Islams, 31(2), 193-215. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1570579.
  • Young, A. (2018). Transforming Sudan: Decolonization, economic development, and state formation. Cambridge University Press.

Sudan’ın Pamuğun Modern Tekniklerle Yetiştirilmesi ve Ticareti Yoluyla Kapitalist Dünya-Ekonomisine Eklemlenmesi

Yıl 2024, , 73 - 96, 13.06.2024
https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.1435202

Öz

19. yüzyıldan önce Sudan, merkezi olmayan krallıkların siyasi gücü elinde tuttuğu kendine özgü bir sosyal sisteme sahipti. Makale, bu topluluklararası sistemin 19. yüzyılda kapitalist dünya ekonomisine dahil olma sürecine girdiğini varsaymaktadır. Sudan’da ilk modernleşme politikaları Turkiyya olarak bilinen 1821-1885 yılları arasındaki Türk-Mısır idaresi döneminde uygulandı. İngiliz kuvvetlerinin kısa ömürlü Mehdilik yönetimini yenilgiye uğratmasının ardından bu idare 1899'da İngiliz-Mısır yönetimine geçti. Yeni kondominyum hükümetinin kurulmasıyla Sudan, genişleyen dünya ekonomisinin peripheral tedarikçisi haline geldi. Periferileştirme boyunca İngilizler, Nil vadisinden gelen arap zamkı ve pamuk gibi hammaddelerin kontrolünü ele geçirdi ve bunlar daha sonra İngiltere anakarasındaki fabrikalara nakledildi. Bu makale, Sudan'ın ekonomik eklemlenme sürecini, özellikle kolonyal zihniyetle kurulan ve ağırlıklı olarak pamuk üretimine dayanan Gezira Projesi’ne odaklanarak incelemektedir. Bu sürecin etkisi, ülkenin 1929 küresel ekonomik krizinden ciddi şekilde etkilendiği 1930'larda açıkça görülmüştür.

Kaynakça

  • ‘Abdel Rahim, M. (1987). Imperialism and nationalism in the Sudan: A study in constitutional and political development 1899-1956. Khartoum: Khartoum University Press and London: Ithaca Press.
  • AbdelRahman, A. A. (1998). The implementation and results of IMF/World Bank-supported agricultural reforms: The case of Sudan’s Gezira Scheme. North African Studies, 5(2), 95-115. https://doi.org/10.1353/nas.1998.0017.
  • Arrighi, G. (1999). The global market. Journal of World-Systems Research, 5. 217-251. https://doi.org/10.5195/jwsr.1999.129.
  • Balci, A. & Kardaş, T. (2023). The Ottoman international system: Power projection, interconnectedness, and the autonomy of frontier polities. Millenium, 51(3), 866-891. https://doi.org/10.1177/03058298231185974.
  • Barnett, T. (2019). The Gezira Scheme: An illusion of development. London and New York: Routledge.
  • Bernal, V. (1997). Colonial moral economy and the discipline of development: The Gezira scheme and “modern” Sudan. Cultural Anthropology, 12(4), 447-479. https://www.jstor.org/stable/656632.
  • Braudel, F., & Wallerstein, I. (2009). History and the social sciences: The longue durée. Review (Fernand Braudel Center), 32(2), 171-203. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40647704.
  • Chase-Dunn, C. (1978). Core-periphery relations: The effects of core competition. Barbara H. Kaplan (Ed.), Social change in the capitalist world economy, (pp. 159-176). Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1978.
  • Chase-Dunn, C., & Grimes, P. (1995). World-systems analysis. Annual Review of Sociology, 21, 387-417. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2083416.
  • Chase-Dunn, C. & Hall, T. D. (2018). Conceptualizing core/periphery hierarchies for comparative study. C. Chase-Dunn & T. D. Hall (Ed.), Core/periphery relations in precapitalist worlds, (pp. 5-44). New York: Routledge, 2018.
  • Collins, C. (1976). Colonialism and class struggle in Sudan. MERIP Reports, 46, 3-20. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3010898.
  • Daly, M. W. (1987). Empire on the Nile: The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 1898–1934. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Davidson, B. (1994). Modern Africa: A social and political history. London and New York: Routledge.
  • Edwards, D. N. (1998). Meroe and the Sudanic kingdoms. Journal of African Studies, 39(2), 175-93. https://www.jstor.org/stable/183595.
  • Ekmekcioğlu, A. & Dere, A. (2023). Toplumsal ekoloji yaklaşımını bölgesel gelişmeler üzerinden yeniden tartışmak. Türkiye Ortadoğu Çalışmaları Dergisi, 10(1), 141-178. https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.1262954.
  • El Zain, M. (1996). Tribes and religion in the Sudan. Review of African Political Economy, 23(70), 523-29. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4006342.
  • Gaitskell, A. (1959). Gezira: A Story of Development in the Sudan. London: Faber and Faber.
  • Hance, W. A. (1954). The Gezira: An example in development. Geographical Review, 44(2), 253-70. https://doi.org/10.2307/212359.
  • Hill, R. (1959). Egypt in the Sudan 1820-1881. London: Oxford University Press.
  • Holt, P. M. (1961). A modern history of the Sudan: From the Funj Sultanate to the present day. London: Longman.
  • James, L. (2008). From slaves to oil. J. Ryle, J. Willis, S. Baldo, J. M. Jok (Ed.), The Sudan handbook, (pp. 130-148). London: The Rift Valley Institute.
  • Kramer, R. S., Lobban, R. A. & Fluehr-Lobban, C. (2013). Historical dictionary of the Sudan: Fourth edition, Plymouth: The Scarecrow Press.
  • Mahmoud, M. E. T. (1981). The Mahdist correctional system in the Sudan: Aspect of ideology and politics. Africa Today, 28(2), 78-86. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4186002.
  • MacLoughlin, P. F. M. (1963). The Sudan’s Gezira scheme: An economic profile. Social and Economic Studies, 12(2), 179-99. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27853731.
  • Mollan, S. (2008). Business, State and Economy: Cotton and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1919-1939. African Economic History, 36, 95-123. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41501704.
  • Mollan, S. (2020). Imperialism and economic development in Sub-Saharan Africa: An economic and business history of Sudan. Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Niblock, T. (1987). Class and power in Sudan: The dynamics of Sudanese politics, 1898-1985. London: The Macmillan Press.
  • O’Fahey, R. S. and Spaulding, J. L. (2017). Kingdoms of the Sudan. New York: Routledge.
  • Tignor, R. (1987). The Sudanese private sector. A historical review. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 25(2), 179-212. https://www.jstor.org/stable/161011.
  • Tvedt, T. (2004). The river Nile in the age of British: Political ecology and the quest for economic power. London: IB Tauris.
  • Verhoeven, H. (2015). Water, civilisation and power in Sudan: The political economy of military-Islamist state building. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Wallerstein, I. (1974a). The modern world-system I: Capitalist agriculture and the origins of the European world-economy in the sixteenth century. New York: Academic Press.
  • Wallerstein, I. (1974b). The rise and future demise of the world capitalist system: Concepts for comparative analysis. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 16(4), 387-415. https://www.jstor.org/stable/178015.
  • Wallerstein, I. (1997). The capitalist world-economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
  • Warburg, G. R. (1989). Some social and economic aspects of Turko-Egyptian rule in the Sudan. Belleten, 53(207-208), 769-795.
  • Warburg, G. R. (1991). Turco-Egyptian Sudan: A recent historiographical controversy. Die Welt des Islams, 31(2), 193-215. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1570579.
  • Young, A. (2018). Transforming Sudan: Decolonization, economic development, and state formation. Cambridge University Press.
Toplam 37 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Bölgesel Çalışmalar
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Abdullah Muhsin Yıldız 0000-0003-0659-5263

Erken Görünüm Tarihi 7 Haziran 2024
Yayımlanma Tarihi 13 Haziran 2024
Gönderilme Tarihi 11 Şubat 2024
Kabul Tarihi 26 Mayıs 2024
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2024

Kaynak Göster

APA Yıldız, A. M. (2024). The Sudan’s Incorporation into the Capitalist World-Economy through Modern Cultivation and Trade of Cotton. Türkiye Ortadoğu Çalışmaları Dergisi, 11(1), 73-96. https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.1435202

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