Araştırma Makalesi
BibTex RIS Kaynak Göster

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 12 Sayı: 2, 53 - 72, 25.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.1717402

Öz

Kaynakça

  • Abodohoui, A. & Sua, Z. (2020). The Influence of Chinese Managerial Soft Power on African Skills Development. International Business Review.
  • African Development Bank Group (2022). West Africa Economic Outlook 2022.
  • Aïda Ammour, L. (2018). La Pénétration wahhabite en Afrique. Centre Français de Recherche sur le Renseignement.
  • Alesina, A. (2023). Religion and educational mobility in Africa. Nature, 618, 134-148.
  • Alghannam, H. (2024). Influence Abroad: Saudi Arabia Replaces Salafism in its Soft Power Outreach. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
  • Aloufi, A. & Kim, H. (2024). Transition to a friendly neighbor: Saudi Arabia's Aid Odyssey. The Korean Journal of International Studies, 22(3), 311-335.
  • Anadolu Agency (2017). Saudi Arabia pledges $100 million in Sahel terror fight, 2017. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/economy/saudi-arabia-pledges-100-million-in-sahel-terror-fight/1004235.
  • Ani, K. J. (2022). Saudi Arabian-African Partnership: Focus on Evolution and Diplomatic Possibilities. Journal of African Foreign Affairs, 9(2) , 127-140.
  • Augé, B. (2018). L’Afrique de l’Ouest courtisée par le Qatar et ses rivaux du Golfe. Le Monde. https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2018/01/04/l-afrique-de-l-ouest-courtisee-par-le-qatar-et-ses-rivaux-du-golfe_5237567_3212.html.
  • Auge, B. (2020). Saudi Arabia's Policy in Africa: Vectors and Objectives. L’Afrique en Question 52, Ifri, France: Paris.
  • Bahi, R. (2019). Iran-Saudi Rivalry in Africa: Implications for Regional Stability. Middle East Policy, 25(4), 26-40. Bamakhrama, D. S. (2023). Saudi Arabia Can Play Key Role in Africa’s Promising Future. https://arab.news/bb9ky.
  • Belhaj, F. (2024). Africa and the Middle East: The Shift from Geopolitics to Geoeconomics. Policy Center for the New South, Policy Brief - N° 48/24, Morocco: Rabat.
  • Bellion-Jourdan, J. (2001). Les Organisations de Secours Islamique et l’Action Humanitaire. Esprit, 277(8/9), 173-185.
  • Billat, C. (2015). The funding of Humanitarian Action by Non-Western Donors. The Sustainability of Gulf States Contribution, Dissertation Master of Advanced Studies in Humanitarian Action, CERAH working paper.
  • Brooke-Holland, L. (2023). Coups and Political Stability in West Africa, House of Commons Library Research Briefing. https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-9861/CBP-9861.pdf .
  • Chaziza, M. & Lutmar, C. (2025). Saudi Arabia’s Niche Diplomacy: A Middle Power’s Strategy for Global Influence. World 2025, 6(65), 1-17.
  • Choudhury, D. R. (2022). Equatorial Guinea: New backdrop for Sino-US rivalry, The Economic Times. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/equatorial-guinea-new-backdrop-for-sino-us-rivalry/articleshow/90354940.cms?from=mdr .
  • Cour, J & Snrech, S. (1998). Preparing for the Future: A Vision of West Africa in the Year 2020, West Africa Long-Term Perspective Study, OECD, France: Paris.
  • Czerminska, M. & Garlińska-Bielawska, J. (2018). European Union, West Africa Trade Relations: With or without Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA), Annuals of the Administration and Law, 17 (2),103-120.
  • Czornik, K. (2024). The Role of Soft Power in Shaping Saudi Arabia’s Regional and Global Position. Przegląd Strategiczny, 17,189-200.
  • El-Badawy, E. (2023). Security, Soft Power and Regime Support: Spheres of Russian Influence in Africa. Tony Blair Institute for Global Change.
  • ESG voices podcast series (2022). Becoming a sustainable energy powerhouse. https://assets.kpmg.com/content/dam/kpmg/xx/pdf/2022/10/becoming-a-sustainable-energy-powerhouse.pdf.
  • Frazier, D. V. and Stewart-Ingersoll, R. (2010). Regional Powers and Security: A Framework for Understanding Order within Regional Security Complexes. European Journal of International Relations, 16(4), 731-753.
  • Freitag, U. (2022). The Projection of Saudi Arabian Influence in West Africa. De Gruyte, 174-205. Grégoire, E. and Schmitz, J. (2000). Monde arabe et Afrique noire : permanences et nouveaux liens. Autrepart, 16, 1-16.
  • Gresh, A. (1983). L’Arabie Saoudite en Afrique non arabe. Puissance Islamique ou Relais de l’Occident? Politique Africaine, 10, 55-74.
  • Gurjar, S. (2023). How Russia and China are Challenging Western Domination in West Africa, India Narrative. https://www.indianarrative.com/opinion-news/how-russia-and-china-are-challenging-western-domination-in-west-africa-139677.html.
  • Habtoor, A. & Al-Harthi, G. (2023). Saudi Arabia and Africa. Laying the Foundations for Continental Integration and a Sustainable Future. https://aawsat.com//4660536- .
  • Kappel, R. (2021). Robert Kappel, Redefining Europe-Africa Relations, Friedrıch-Ebert-Stiftung. https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/bruessel/17306.pdf .
  • Kepe, et. al., (2023). Great-Power Competition and Conflict in Africa. Rand Corporation, Santa Monica: Calif.
  • Kepel, G. (2002). Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam. Harvard University Press.
  • Khemiri, S. (2022). L’assistance Humanitaire et l’Aide au Développement de l’Arabie Saoudite à l’Afrique Subsaharienne : Entre Charité, Prédication et Intérêts Politiques, Global Studies Institute de l’Université de Genève Collection.
  • Kinkoh, H. (2024). Gulf states’ trade and investment relations. Anwar Gargash Diplomatic Academy,
  • Konopka, N. O. and Strykhotskyi, T. L. (2021). Cultural Diplomacy of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in the Context of the Vision 2030 Strategy Implementation.
  • Korany, B. (1979). Pétro-Puissance et Système Mondial : Le Cas de l’Arabie Saoudite. Études internationales, 10 (4), 797–819.
  • KSRelief (2023). List of countries benefiting from aid from the King Salman Humanitarian Aid and Relief Center. https://www.ksrelief.org/Statistics/BeneficiaryCountries/#africa.
  • Li, Y. (2019). Saudi Arabia’s Economic Diplomacy through Foreign Aid: Dynamics, Objectives, and Mode. Asian Journal of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies 2019, 13(1), 110–122
  • Luntumbue, M. (2014). Comprendre la Dynamique des Conflits : Une Lecture Synthétique des Facteurs de Conflits en Afrique de l’Ouest. Groupe de Recherche et d’Information sur la Paix et la Sécurité. Belgium: Bruxelles
  • Mallinson, F. (2022). The Revival of Strategic Competition in West Africa: Western Intransigence and Eastern Assertiveness. Georgetown Security Studies Review. https://georgetownsecuritystudiesreview.org/2022/05/13/the-revival-of-strategic-competition-in-west-africa-western-intransigence-and-eastern-assertiveness/.
  • Meservey, J. (2021). Salafis, Sufis, and the Contest for the Future of African Islam. https://www.hudson.org/node/44076.
  • Ministry of External Affairs (2023) Annual Report. https://mea.gov.in/Uploads/PublicationDocs/36286_MEA_Annual_Report_2022_English_web.pdf.
  • Wei, L. (2022). Navies of China, Gulf of Guinea countries eye maritime security cooperation. http://eng.chinamil.com.cn/CHINA_209163/TopStories_209189/10158454.html.
  • Miran, M. (2016). Le territoire de la prière. Grammaire spatiale des mosquées d’Afrique de l’Ouest. Les Cahiers d’Outre-Mer, 2016, 274, 41-75.
  • OIC (2018). Charter of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation. https://oic-oci.org/upload/documents/charter/fr/oic_charter_2018_fr.pdf.
  • Pehlivan, S. B. (2023). Factors determining the state behavior of saudi arabia as a regional power. Akademik tarih ve düşünce dergisi, 10 (6), 2329-2356.
  • Rrustemi, A. et al. (2019). Report Part Title: The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Report Title: Geopolitical Influences of External Powers in the Western Balkans. Hague Centre for Strategic Studies, 49-64.
  • Salih, M. (2002). Islamic NGOs in Africa: The promise and peril of Islamic voluntarism. Centre of African Studies.
  • Saudi Press Agency (2021). Une Délégation du Fonds Saoudien pour le Développement Visite la Gambie pour Lancer des Projets. https://www.spa.gov.sa/w1653687.
  • Saudi Press Agency (2023). The Saudi-African Summit: Establishing a Fruitful Partnership in Various Fields. https://www.spa.gov.sa/N1994008.
  • Shabana, A. (2020). Saudi Policy in Africa: Interests and Practices. Pharos Center for Consulting and Strategic Studies.
  • Shinn, H. D. (2019). China-Africa Ties in Historical Context. Edited by Arkebe Oqubay and Justin Yifu Lin, Oxford University Press.
  • Soulié, G.J.L. & Champenois, L. (1977). La politique extérieure de l'Arabie Saoudite. Institut Français des Relations Internationales, Politique étrangère , 42(6), 601-622
  • Sounaye, A. (2017). Salafi Revolution in West Africa. ZMO Working Papers, 19, Leibniz-Zentrum Moderner Orient, Germany: Berlin.
  • Statista (2022). Nigeria's Economy & Society, Data and Analysis, Countries and Regions.
  • The Print (2022). INS Tarkash Completes Gulf of Guinea Anti-Piracy Deployment. https://theprint.in/world/ins-tarkash-completes-gulf-of-guinea-anti-piracy-deployment/1154540/ .
  • U.S. Department of Defense (2024). Military and security developments involving the People's Republic of China. Annual report to Congress. https://media.defense.gov/2024/dec/18/2003615520/-1/-1/0/mılıtary-and-securıty-developments-ınvolvıng-the-peoples-republıc-of-chına-2024.pdf
  • United Nations (2022). Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. World Population Prospects: The 2022 Revision.

Saudi Arabia’s Geopolitical Influence in West Africa: Opportunities and Challenges

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 12 Sayı: 2, 53 - 72, 25.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.1717402

Öz

Throughout history, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has maintained close relations in Africa. The significance of Saudi-African relations has grown alongside the political evolution that directly and indirectly affected both parties' internal and regional stages. Due to its substantial political influence on the continent, West Africa is characterized as a zone of competition among various powers. Opportunities and challenges vary for several reasons, including the distinct characteristics and capacities of the rival powers in the West African region. In light of multilateral international rivalry, this article aims to assess Saudi Arabia's impact on West Africa, while exploring potential prospects and obstacles. It examines the different points of contention, which the majority of research on this topic is based on. The findings resulted from a thorough representation of the potential for future interactions between the two parties. The article scrutinizes the effectiveness of the old approaches adopted by the Saudi kingdom with regard to the new realities represented by the competition between major and middle powers in the region.

Kaynakça

  • Abodohoui, A. & Sua, Z. (2020). The Influence of Chinese Managerial Soft Power on African Skills Development. International Business Review.
  • African Development Bank Group (2022). West Africa Economic Outlook 2022.
  • Aïda Ammour, L. (2018). La Pénétration wahhabite en Afrique. Centre Français de Recherche sur le Renseignement.
  • Alesina, A. (2023). Religion and educational mobility in Africa. Nature, 618, 134-148.
  • Alghannam, H. (2024). Influence Abroad: Saudi Arabia Replaces Salafism in its Soft Power Outreach. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
  • Aloufi, A. & Kim, H. (2024). Transition to a friendly neighbor: Saudi Arabia's Aid Odyssey. The Korean Journal of International Studies, 22(3), 311-335.
  • Anadolu Agency (2017). Saudi Arabia pledges $100 million in Sahel terror fight, 2017. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/economy/saudi-arabia-pledges-100-million-in-sahel-terror-fight/1004235.
  • Ani, K. J. (2022). Saudi Arabian-African Partnership: Focus on Evolution and Diplomatic Possibilities. Journal of African Foreign Affairs, 9(2) , 127-140.
  • Augé, B. (2018). L’Afrique de l’Ouest courtisée par le Qatar et ses rivaux du Golfe. Le Monde. https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2018/01/04/l-afrique-de-l-ouest-courtisee-par-le-qatar-et-ses-rivaux-du-golfe_5237567_3212.html.
  • Auge, B. (2020). Saudi Arabia's Policy in Africa: Vectors and Objectives. L’Afrique en Question 52, Ifri, France: Paris.
  • Bahi, R. (2019). Iran-Saudi Rivalry in Africa: Implications for Regional Stability. Middle East Policy, 25(4), 26-40. Bamakhrama, D. S. (2023). Saudi Arabia Can Play Key Role in Africa’s Promising Future. https://arab.news/bb9ky.
  • Belhaj, F. (2024). Africa and the Middle East: The Shift from Geopolitics to Geoeconomics. Policy Center for the New South, Policy Brief - N° 48/24, Morocco: Rabat.
  • Bellion-Jourdan, J. (2001). Les Organisations de Secours Islamique et l’Action Humanitaire. Esprit, 277(8/9), 173-185.
  • Billat, C. (2015). The funding of Humanitarian Action by Non-Western Donors. The Sustainability of Gulf States Contribution, Dissertation Master of Advanced Studies in Humanitarian Action, CERAH working paper.
  • Brooke-Holland, L. (2023). Coups and Political Stability in West Africa, House of Commons Library Research Briefing. https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-9861/CBP-9861.pdf .
  • Chaziza, M. & Lutmar, C. (2025). Saudi Arabia’s Niche Diplomacy: A Middle Power’s Strategy for Global Influence. World 2025, 6(65), 1-17.
  • Choudhury, D. R. (2022). Equatorial Guinea: New backdrop for Sino-US rivalry, The Economic Times. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/world-news/equatorial-guinea-new-backdrop-for-sino-us-rivalry/articleshow/90354940.cms?from=mdr .
  • Cour, J & Snrech, S. (1998). Preparing for the Future: A Vision of West Africa in the Year 2020, West Africa Long-Term Perspective Study, OECD, France: Paris.
  • Czerminska, M. & Garlińska-Bielawska, J. (2018). European Union, West Africa Trade Relations: With or without Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA), Annuals of the Administration and Law, 17 (2),103-120.
  • Czornik, K. (2024). The Role of Soft Power in Shaping Saudi Arabia’s Regional and Global Position. Przegląd Strategiczny, 17,189-200.
  • El-Badawy, E. (2023). Security, Soft Power and Regime Support: Spheres of Russian Influence in Africa. Tony Blair Institute for Global Change.
  • ESG voices podcast series (2022). Becoming a sustainable energy powerhouse. https://assets.kpmg.com/content/dam/kpmg/xx/pdf/2022/10/becoming-a-sustainable-energy-powerhouse.pdf.
  • Frazier, D. V. and Stewart-Ingersoll, R. (2010). Regional Powers and Security: A Framework for Understanding Order within Regional Security Complexes. European Journal of International Relations, 16(4), 731-753.
  • Freitag, U. (2022). The Projection of Saudi Arabian Influence in West Africa. De Gruyte, 174-205. Grégoire, E. and Schmitz, J. (2000). Monde arabe et Afrique noire : permanences et nouveaux liens. Autrepart, 16, 1-16.
  • Gresh, A. (1983). L’Arabie Saoudite en Afrique non arabe. Puissance Islamique ou Relais de l’Occident? Politique Africaine, 10, 55-74.
  • Gurjar, S. (2023). How Russia and China are Challenging Western Domination in West Africa, India Narrative. https://www.indianarrative.com/opinion-news/how-russia-and-china-are-challenging-western-domination-in-west-africa-139677.html.
  • Habtoor, A. & Al-Harthi, G. (2023). Saudi Arabia and Africa. Laying the Foundations for Continental Integration and a Sustainable Future. https://aawsat.com//4660536- .
  • Kappel, R. (2021). Robert Kappel, Redefining Europe-Africa Relations, Friedrıch-Ebert-Stiftung. https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/bruessel/17306.pdf .
  • Kepe, et. al., (2023). Great-Power Competition and Conflict in Africa. Rand Corporation, Santa Monica: Calif.
  • Kepel, G. (2002). Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam. Harvard University Press.
  • Khemiri, S. (2022). L’assistance Humanitaire et l’Aide au Développement de l’Arabie Saoudite à l’Afrique Subsaharienne : Entre Charité, Prédication et Intérêts Politiques, Global Studies Institute de l’Université de Genève Collection.
  • Kinkoh, H. (2024). Gulf states’ trade and investment relations. Anwar Gargash Diplomatic Academy,
  • Konopka, N. O. and Strykhotskyi, T. L. (2021). Cultural Diplomacy of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in the Context of the Vision 2030 Strategy Implementation.
  • Korany, B. (1979). Pétro-Puissance et Système Mondial : Le Cas de l’Arabie Saoudite. Études internationales, 10 (4), 797–819.
  • KSRelief (2023). List of countries benefiting from aid from the King Salman Humanitarian Aid and Relief Center. https://www.ksrelief.org/Statistics/BeneficiaryCountries/#africa.
  • Li, Y. (2019). Saudi Arabia’s Economic Diplomacy through Foreign Aid: Dynamics, Objectives, and Mode. Asian Journal of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies 2019, 13(1), 110–122
  • Luntumbue, M. (2014). Comprendre la Dynamique des Conflits : Une Lecture Synthétique des Facteurs de Conflits en Afrique de l’Ouest. Groupe de Recherche et d’Information sur la Paix et la Sécurité. Belgium: Bruxelles
  • Mallinson, F. (2022). The Revival of Strategic Competition in West Africa: Western Intransigence and Eastern Assertiveness. Georgetown Security Studies Review. https://georgetownsecuritystudiesreview.org/2022/05/13/the-revival-of-strategic-competition-in-west-africa-western-intransigence-and-eastern-assertiveness/.
  • Meservey, J. (2021). Salafis, Sufis, and the Contest for the Future of African Islam. https://www.hudson.org/node/44076.
  • Ministry of External Affairs (2023) Annual Report. https://mea.gov.in/Uploads/PublicationDocs/36286_MEA_Annual_Report_2022_English_web.pdf.
  • Wei, L. (2022). Navies of China, Gulf of Guinea countries eye maritime security cooperation. http://eng.chinamil.com.cn/CHINA_209163/TopStories_209189/10158454.html.
  • Miran, M. (2016). Le territoire de la prière. Grammaire spatiale des mosquées d’Afrique de l’Ouest. Les Cahiers d’Outre-Mer, 2016, 274, 41-75.
  • OIC (2018). Charter of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation. https://oic-oci.org/upload/documents/charter/fr/oic_charter_2018_fr.pdf.
  • Pehlivan, S. B. (2023). Factors determining the state behavior of saudi arabia as a regional power. Akademik tarih ve düşünce dergisi, 10 (6), 2329-2356.
  • Rrustemi, A. et al. (2019). Report Part Title: The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Report Title: Geopolitical Influences of External Powers in the Western Balkans. Hague Centre for Strategic Studies, 49-64.
  • Salih, M. (2002). Islamic NGOs in Africa: The promise and peril of Islamic voluntarism. Centre of African Studies.
  • Saudi Press Agency (2021). Une Délégation du Fonds Saoudien pour le Développement Visite la Gambie pour Lancer des Projets. https://www.spa.gov.sa/w1653687.
  • Saudi Press Agency (2023). The Saudi-African Summit: Establishing a Fruitful Partnership in Various Fields. https://www.spa.gov.sa/N1994008.
  • Shabana, A. (2020). Saudi Policy in Africa: Interests and Practices. Pharos Center for Consulting and Strategic Studies.
  • Shinn, H. D. (2019). China-Africa Ties in Historical Context. Edited by Arkebe Oqubay and Justin Yifu Lin, Oxford University Press.
  • Soulié, G.J.L. & Champenois, L. (1977). La politique extérieure de l'Arabie Saoudite. Institut Français des Relations Internationales, Politique étrangère , 42(6), 601-622
  • Sounaye, A. (2017). Salafi Revolution in West Africa. ZMO Working Papers, 19, Leibniz-Zentrum Moderner Orient, Germany: Berlin.
  • Statista (2022). Nigeria's Economy & Society, Data and Analysis, Countries and Regions.
  • The Print (2022). INS Tarkash Completes Gulf of Guinea Anti-Piracy Deployment. https://theprint.in/world/ins-tarkash-completes-gulf-of-guinea-anti-piracy-deployment/1154540/ .
  • U.S. Department of Defense (2024). Military and security developments involving the People's Republic of China. Annual report to Congress. https://media.defense.gov/2024/dec/18/2003615520/-1/-1/0/mılıtary-and-securıty-developments-ınvolvıng-the-peoples-republıc-of-chına-2024.pdf
  • United Nations (2022). Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. World Population Prospects: The 2022 Revision.
Toplam 56 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Bölgesel Çalışmalar
Bölüm Araştırma Makalesi
Yazarlar

Mouhamed Bachir Diop 0000-0003-2273-4243

Gönderilme Tarihi 11 Haziran 2025
Kabul Tarihi 7 Eylül 2025
Erken Görünüm Tarihi 30 Eylül 2025
Yayımlanma Tarihi 25 Aralık 2025
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2025 Cilt: 12 Sayı: 2

Kaynak Göster

APA Diop, M. B. (2025). Saudi Arabia’s Geopolitical Influence in West Africa: Opportunities and Challenges. Türkiye Ortadoğu Çalışmaları Dergisi, 12(2), 53-72. https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.1717402
AMA Diop MB. Saudi Arabia’s Geopolitical Influence in West Africa: Opportunities and Challenges. Türkiye Ortadoğu Çalışmaları Dergisi. Aralık 2025;12(2):53-72. doi:10.26513/tocd.1717402
Chicago Diop, Mouhamed Bachir. “Saudi Arabia’s Geopolitical Influence in West Africa: Opportunities and Challenges”. Türkiye Ortadoğu Çalışmaları Dergisi 12, sy. 2 (Aralık 2025): 53-72. https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.1717402.
EndNote Diop MB (01 Aralık 2025) Saudi Arabia’s Geopolitical Influence in West Africa: Opportunities and Challenges. Türkiye Ortadoğu Çalışmaları Dergisi 12 2 53–72.
IEEE M. B. Diop, “Saudi Arabia’s Geopolitical Influence in West Africa: Opportunities and Challenges”, Türkiye Ortadoğu Çalışmaları Dergisi, c. 12, sy. 2, ss. 53–72, 2025, doi: 10.26513/tocd.1717402.
ISNAD Diop, Mouhamed Bachir. “Saudi Arabia’s Geopolitical Influence in West Africa: Opportunities and Challenges”. Türkiye Ortadoğu Çalışmaları Dergisi 12/2 (Aralık2025), 53-72. https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.1717402.
JAMA Diop MB. Saudi Arabia’s Geopolitical Influence in West Africa: Opportunities and Challenges. Türkiye Ortadoğu Çalışmaları Dergisi. 2025;12:53–72.
MLA Diop, Mouhamed Bachir. “Saudi Arabia’s Geopolitical Influence in West Africa: Opportunities and Challenges”. Türkiye Ortadoğu Çalışmaları Dergisi, c. 12, sy. 2, 2025, ss. 53-72, doi:10.26513/tocd.1717402.
Vancouver Diop MB. Saudi Arabia’s Geopolitical Influence in West Africa: Opportunities and Challenges. Türkiye Ortadoğu Çalışmaları Dergisi. 2025;12(2):53-72.

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