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Sisteme Meydan Okumak: Batı-Dışı Dünyada Batı Karşıtlığının Kökenleri ve İran Örneği

Yıl 2019, , 13 - 42, 30.12.2019
https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.581276

Öz

Batı karşıtlığı; Çin, Küba, Venezuela, Türkiye, İran ve Arap ülkeleri gibi birçok Batı-dışı toplumun siyasal hayatında sık rastlanılan bir öğedir. Bu makale; Batı karşıtlığını “Batı’nın kültürel üstünlüğüne karşı irrasyonel, köktenci ve aşırılıkçı bir tepki” olarak sunan akademik literatürü eleştirip, Batı karşıtlığını Batı-dışı toplumlarla (İran vb.) Batılı güçler (Britanya, Fransa ve ABD vb.) arasındaki sorunlu siyasal/ekonomik ilişkilerin doğal ve rasyonel bir sonucu olarak tanımlamaktadır. İran özellikle dikkat çekici bir örnektir çünkü Batı karşıtlığı ülkedeki modern devlet yapısının oluşumunda anahtar rol oynamıştır. İran’ın günümüzde sürdürdüğü dış politika ve 1979 Devrimi’nin ardından İslam Cumhuriyeti’ni üreten tarihsel rota Batı karşıtlığı göz önüne alınmadan anlaşılamaz. Bu makalede İran’daki Batı karşıtlığının kökenleri ülkenin nevi şahsına münhasır tarihsel tecrübesi yorumlanarak incelenmektedir; bu bağlamda özellikle İran ile Batı ülkeleri arasındaki ilişkilere odaklanılmaktadır. İran’ın Batı karşıtı dış politikasını 1979 sonrası devletin İslamcı ideolojisine bağlayan çalışmaların aksine, bu çalışmada ülkenin Batı-merkezli uluslararası siyasal sisteme duyduğu husumetin kökenlerinin aslında İran ulusal kimliğinin 20.yüzyılın başlarında geçirdiği dönüşümde aranması gerektiği savunulmaktadır.

Kaynakça

  • Abdi, Kamyar. “Nationalism, Politics, and the Development of Archaeology in Iran.” American Journal of Archaeology 105, no. 1 (2001): 51-76.
  • Adib-Moghaddam, Arshin. “Reflections on Arab and Iranian Ultra-Nationalism.” MRZINE Monthly Review (2006), http://mrzine.monthlyreview.org/2006/aam201106p.html.
  • Adib-Moghaddam, Arshin. “Islamic Utopian Romanticism and the Foreign Policy Culture of Iran.” Middle East Critique 14, no. 3 (2005): 265-292.
  • Ahmadi, Hamid. “Unity within Diversity: Foundations and Dynamics of National Identity in Iran.” Middle East Critique 14, no. 1 (2005): 127-147.
  • Akarlı, Engin Deniz. “The Tangled Ends of an Empire: Ottoman Encounters with the West and Problems of Westernization – an Overview.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 26, no. 3 (2006): 86-105.
  • Ansari, Ali M. The Politics of Nationalism in Iran. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  • Aryanpour, Yahya. From Saba to Nima: One Hundred and Fifty Years of Persian Literature. Tehran, 1971) [in Persian].
  • Aydın, Cemil. The Politics of Anti-Westernism in Asia. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.
  • Aydın, Cemil. “Between Occidentalism and the Global Left: Islamist Critiques of the West in Turkey.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 26, no. 3 (2006): 446-461.
  • Bartlett, Jamie. “Conspiracy Theories Fuel Anti-Western Sentiment in the Middle East”, The New York Times, September 13, 2012, https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2012/09/12/does-mideast-democracy-complicate-diplomacy/conspiracy-theories-fuel-anti-western-sentiment-in-the-middle-east.
  • Boroujerdi, Mehrzad. “The West in the Eyes of the Iranian Intellectuals of the Interwar Years (1919-1939).” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 26, no. 3 (2006): 391-401.
  • Boroujerdi, Mehrzad. “Contesting Nationalist Constructions of Iranian Identity.” Critique: Critical Middle Eastern Studies 7, no. 12 (1998): 43-55.
  • Buruma, Ian and Avishai Margalit. Occidentalism: A Short History of Anti-Westernism. London: Penguin Press, 2004. Carrier, James. “Introduction,” in Occidentalism: Images of the West (edited by James Carrier). New York: Clarendon Press, 1995.
  • Carrier, James. “Preface,” in Occidentalism: Images of the West (edited by James Carrier). New York: Clarendon Press, 1995.
  • Cottam, Richard. “Nationalism in Twentieth Century Iran and Dr Muhammad Musaddiq.” in Musaddiq, Iranian Nationalism, and Oil (edited by J. Bill and R. Louis). Austin: Texas University Press, 1988).
  • Cottam, Richard. Nationalism in Iran. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979.
  • Elwell-Sutton, L. P. “Nationalism and Neutralism in Iran.” Middle East Journal 12, no. 1 (1958): 20-32.
  • Gheissari, Ali. Iranian Intellectuals in the 20th Century. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1998.
  • Göksel, Oğuzhan. “Uneven and Development and Non-Western Modernities: A History Sociology Guide to the New Turkey.” New Middle Eastern Studies 8, no. 1 (2018): 63-89.
  • Guida, Michelangelo. “Al-Afghani and Namik Kemal’s Replies to Ernest Renan: Two Anti-Westernist Works in the Formative Stage of Islamic Thought.” Turkish Journal of Politics 2, no. 2 (2011), 57-70.
  • Holliday, Shabnam. “The Politicisation of Culture and the Contestation of Iranian National Identity in Khatami’s Iran.” Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism 7, no. 1 (2007): 27-45.
  • Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996. Kashani-Sabet, Firoozeh. Frontier Fictions: Shaping the Iranian Nation, 1804-1946. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1999.
  • Khalidi, Rashid. Resurrecting Empire: Western Footprints and America’s Perilous Path in the Middle East. London: Beacon Press. 2004.
  • Khomeini, Ruhollah. Islam and Revolution: Writings and Declarations of Imam Khomeini. Berkeley: Mizan Press, 1981.
  • Kia, Mehrdad. “Persian Nationalism and the Campaign for Language Purification.” Middle Eastern Studies 34, no. 2 (1998): 9-36.
  • Kinzer, Stephen. All the Shah’s Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror. New Jersey: Wiley, 2003.
  • Knoope, Peter. “Anti-Westernism and Terrorism,” Clingendael: Netherlands Institute of International Relations, January 17, 2017, https://www.clingendael.org/event/anti-westernism-terrorism.
  • Lenczowski, George. Russia and the West in Iran, 1918-1948: A Study in Big-Power Rivalry. New York: Praeger, 1949.
  • Lewis, Bernard. What Went Wrong?: The Western Impact and the Middle Eastern Response. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Makrides, Vasilios. “Orthodox Anti-Westernism Today: A Hindrance to European Integration.” International Journal for the Study of the Christian Church 9, no. 3 (2009): 209-224.
  • Mirsepassi, Ali. “Religious Intellectuals and Western Critiques of Secular Modernity.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 26, no. 3 (2006): 416-433.
  • Said, Edward W. Orientalism. London: Pantheon Books, 1978.
  • Sandıklı Attila and Bilgehan Emeklier. “Iran at the Center of Chaos Scenarios.” Bilgesam Report 40 (2012).
  • Sariolghalam, Mahmood. “Understanding Iran: Getting Past Stereotypes and Mythology.” The Washington Quarterly 26, no. 4 (2003): 69-82.
  • Stein, Kenneth W. “Western Intrusion Collides with Tradition in the Middle East.” The Carter Center (1991).
  • Tavakoli-Targhi, Mohamad. “From Patriotism to Matriotism: A Topological Study of Iranian Nationalism, 1870-1909.” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 34, no. 2 (2002): 217-238.
  • Tavakoli-Targhi, Mohamad. Refashioning Iran: Orientalism, Occidentalism and Historiography. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001.
  • Zonis, Marvin and Craig M. Joseph. “Conspiracy Thinking in the Middle East.” Political Psychology 15, no. 3 (1994): 443-459.

Defying the System: The Origins of Anti-Westernism in the Non-Western World and the Case of Iran

Yıl 2019, , 13 - 42, 30.12.2019
https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.581276

Öz

Anti-Western sentiment is a common feature of politics in many non-Western societies such as China, Cuba, Venezuela, Turkey, Iran and various Arab countries. Challenging the scholarly literature that depicts anti-Westernism as an “irrational, extremist and fundamentalist reaction to the cultural hegemony of the West”, this article conceptualizes anti-Westernism as a rational reaction to – and an unsurprising consequence of – the problematic political/economic interactions between non-Western societies (e.g. Iran) and Western powers (e.g. Britain, France and the US). Iran is a particularly noteworthy case because anti-Westernism played a key role in the formation of the modern state in the country. The foreign policy of behavior of Iran in our time and the historical trajectory that produced the Islamic Republic after the 1979 Revolution cannot possibly be understood without acknowledging anti-Westernism. The origins of anti-Westernism in Iran are explored in this article through interpreting the path dependent historical experience of the country, with a particular emphasis on relations between Iran and Western countries. In contrast to works that attribute Iran’s anti-Western foreign policy to the Islamist ideology of the post-1979 era, I argue that hostility to the Western-dominated international political system should actually be traced to the way in which Iranian national identity evolved in the early 20th century. 

Kaynakça

  • Abdi, Kamyar. “Nationalism, Politics, and the Development of Archaeology in Iran.” American Journal of Archaeology 105, no. 1 (2001): 51-76.
  • Adib-Moghaddam, Arshin. “Reflections on Arab and Iranian Ultra-Nationalism.” MRZINE Monthly Review (2006), http://mrzine.monthlyreview.org/2006/aam201106p.html.
  • Adib-Moghaddam, Arshin. “Islamic Utopian Romanticism and the Foreign Policy Culture of Iran.” Middle East Critique 14, no. 3 (2005): 265-292.
  • Ahmadi, Hamid. “Unity within Diversity: Foundations and Dynamics of National Identity in Iran.” Middle East Critique 14, no. 1 (2005): 127-147.
  • Akarlı, Engin Deniz. “The Tangled Ends of an Empire: Ottoman Encounters with the West and Problems of Westernization – an Overview.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 26, no. 3 (2006): 86-105.
  • Ansari, Ali M. The Politics of Nationalism in Iran. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  • Aryanpour, Yahya. From Saba to Nima: One Hundred and Fifty Years of Persian Literature. Tehran, 1971) [in Persian].
  • Aydın, Cemil. The Politics of Anti-Westernism in Asia. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.
  • Aydın, Cemil. “Between Occidentalism and the Global Left: Islamist Critiques of the West in Turkey.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 26, no. 3 (2006): 446-461.
  • Bartlett, Jamie. “Conspiracy Theories Fuel Anti-Western Sentiment in the Middle East”, The New York Times, September 13, 2012, https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2012/09/12/does-mideast-democracy-complicate-diplomacy/conspiracy-theories-fuel-anti-western-sentiment-in-the-middle-east.
  • Boroujerdi, Mehrzad. “The West in the Eyes of the Iranian Intellectuals of the Interwar Years (1919-1939).” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 26, no. 3 (2006): 391-401.
  • Boroujerdi, Mehrzad. “Contesting Nationalist Constructions of Iranian Identity.” Critique: Critical Middle Eastern Studies 7, no. 12 (1998): 43-55.
  • Buruma, Ian and Avishai Margalit. Occidentalism: A Short History of Anti-Westernism. London: Penguin Press, 2004. Carrier, James. “Introduction,” in Occidentalism: Images of the West (edited by James Carrier). New York: Clarendon Press, 1995.
  • Carrier, James. “Preface,” in Occidentalism: Images of the West (edited by James Carrier). New York: Clarendon Press, 1995.
  • Cottam, Richard. “Nationalism in Twentieth Century Iran and Dr Muhammad Musaddiq.” in Musaddiq, Iranian Nationalism, and Oil (edited by J. Bill and R. Louis). Austin: Texas University Press, 1988).
  • Cottam, Richard. Nationalism in Iran. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979.
  • Elwell-Sutton, L. P. “Nationalism and Neutralism in Iran.” Middle East Journal 12, no. 1 (1958): 20-32.
  • Gheissari, Ali. Iranian Intellectuals in the 20th Century. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1998.
  • Göksel, Oğuzhan. “Uneven and Development and Non-Western Modernities: A History Sociology Guide to the New Turkey.” New Middle Eastern Studies 8, no. 1 (2018): 63-89.
  • Guida, Michelangelo. “Al-Afghani and Namik Kemal’s Replies to Ernest Renan: Two Anti-Westernist Works in the Formative Stage of Islamic Thought.” Turkish Journal of Politics 2, no. 2 (2011), 57-70.
  • Holliday, Shabnam. “The Politicisation of Culture and the Contestation of Iranian National Identity in Khatami’s Iran.” Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism 7, no. 1 (2007): 27-45.
  • Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996. Kashani-Sabet, Firoozeh. Frontier Fictions: Shaping the Iranian Nation, 1804-1946. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1999.
  • Khalidi, Rashid. Resurrecting Empire: Western Footprints and America’s Perilous Path in the Middle East. London: Beacon Press. 2004.
  • Khomeini, Ruhollah. Islam and Revolution: Writings and Declarations of Imam Khomeini. Berkeley: Mizan Press, 1981.
  • Kia, Mehrdad. “Persian Nationalism and the Campaign for Language Purification.” Middle Eastern Studies 34, no. 2 (1998): 9-36.
  • Kinzer, Stephen. All the Shah’s Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror. New Jersey: Wiley, 2003.
  • Knoope, Peter. “Anti-Westernism and Terrorism,” Clingendael: Netherlands Institute of International Relations, January 17, 2017, https://www.clingendael.org/event/anti-westernism-terrorism.
  • Lenczowski, George. Russia and the West in Iran, 1918-1948: A Study in Big-Power Rivalry. New York: Praeger, 1949.
  • Lewis, Bernard. What Went Wrong?: The Western Impact and the Middle Eastern Response. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Makrides, Vasilios. “Orthodox Anti-Westernism Today: A Hindrance to European Integration.” International Journal for the Study of the Christian Church 9, no. 3 (2009): 209-224.
  • Mirsepassi, Ali. “Religious Intellectuals and Western Critiques of Secular Modernity.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 26, no. 3 (2006): 416-433.
  • Said, Edward W. Orientalism. London: Pantheon Books, 1978.
  • Sandıklı Attila and Bilgehan Emeklier. “Iran at the Center of Chaos Scenarios.” Bilgesam Report 40 (2012).
  • Sariolghalam, Mahmood. “Understanding Iran: Getting Past Stereotypes and Mythology.” The Washington Quarterly 26, no. 4 (2003): 69-82.
  • Stein, Kenneth W. “Western Intrusion Collides with Tradition in the Middle East.” The Carter Center (1991).
  • Tavakoli-Targhi, Mohamad. “From Patriotism to Matriotism: A Topological Study of Iranian Nationalism, 1870-1909.” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 34, no. 2 (2002): 217-238.
  • Tavakoli-Targhi, Mohamad. Refashioning Iran: Orientalism, Occidentalism and Historiography. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001.
  • Zonis, Marvin and Craig M. Joseph. “Conspiracy Thinking in the Middle East.” Political Psychology 15, no. 3 (1994): 443-459.
Toplam 37 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Oğuzhan Göksel 0000-0002-4175-8921

Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Aralık 2019
Kabul Tarihi 16 Eylül 2019
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2019

Kaynak Göster

APA Göksel, O. (2019). Defying the System: The Origins of Anti-Westernism in the Non-Western World and the Case of Iran. Türkiye Ortadoğu Çalışmaları Dergisi, 6(2), 13-42. https://doi.org/10.26513/tocd.581276

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TOÇD'nde yayınlanan makaleler Creative Commons Atıf-GayriTicari 4.0 Uluslararası Lisansı ile lisanslanmıştır.