The Differences Between Atheists and Agnostics: A Comparison of Various Attitudes

Yıl 2023, Sayı: 16, 111 - 129, 30.12.2023

Kenan Sevinç

https://doi.org/10.53112/tudear.1366814

Öz

Many studies show that there are different types of nonbelief. Some of them define atheism and agnosticism as two different types of nonbelief, while others see agnosticism as a form of atheism. This paper deals with the differences in attitudes of atheists and agnostics on various issues. In order to detect this difference, the dataset of “International Social Survey Programme: Religion IV (ZA7570_v2.1.0)” on religion and values was used. The data were downloaded from gesis.org and analyzed. Survey data were collected by GESIS (n=46267) from 33 countries between 2017 and 2020. The number of atheists and agnostics is 11759 (58.4% atheist). The two groups were compared in terms of demographics, attitudes towards religion, sexual attitudes, political preference, trust in science, and happiness. The results of the analysis show that atheists and agnostics have different attitudes on many issues and that atheists are more true believers than agnostics.

Anahtar Kelimeler

nonbelief, atheist, agnostic, attitudes, difference

Etik Beyan

In this study, the dataset of “International Social Survey Programme: Religion IV (ZA7570_v2.1.0)” on religion and values was used. The data were downloaded from ISSP website (gesis.org) and analyzed with the permission of GESIS – Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences.

Ateistler ve Agnostikler Arasındaki Farklar: Çeşitli Tutumların Karşılaştırılması

Öz

Birçok çalışma inançsızlığın farklı türlerinin olduğunu göstermektedir. Bazı çalışmaları ateizm ve agnostisizmi inançsızlığın iki farklı türü olarak tanımlarken, bazıları agnostisizmi ateizmin bir türü olarak görmektedir. Bu makale ateistlerin ve agnostiklerin çeşitli konulardaki tutum farklılıklarını ele almaktadır. Bu farklılığın tespiti amacıyla “International Social Survey Programme: Religion IV (ZA7570_v2.1.0)”in din ve değerlere ilişkin veri seti kullanılmıştır. Veriler gesis.org'dan indirilmiş ve analiz edilmiştir. Anket verileri GESİS (n=46267) tarafından 2017-2020 yılları arasında 33 ülkeden toplanmıştır. Ateist ve agnostiklerin sayısı 11759'dur (%58,4 ateist). İki grup demografik özellikler, dine yönelik tutumlar, cinsel tutumlar, siyasi tercih, bilime güven ve mutluluk düzeyi açısından karşılaştırılmıştır. Analiz sonuçları, ateistlerin ve agnostiklerin birçok konuda farklı tutumlara sahip olduğunu ve ateistlerin agnostiklere göre daha kesin inançlı olduklarını göstermektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

inançsızlık, ateist, agnostik, tutumlar, fark

Kaynakça

• Bainbridge, W.S. (2005). Atheism. Interdisciplinary Research on Religion. 1(1), 1-24.
• Baker, J.O. & Smith, B. (2009). None too simple: examining issues of religious nonbelief and nonbelonging in the United States. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 48(4), 719-733.
• Beit-Hallahmi, B. (2007). Atheists: a psychological profile. In M. Martin (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Atheism (pp. 300-317). Cambridge University Press.
• Blazo, D.R. (2013). The politics of atheism in the west [Doctoral dissertation, The University of Mississippi].
• Brewster, M.E., Robinson, M.A., Sandil, R., Esposito, J. & Geiger, E. (2014). Arrantly absent: atheism in psychological science from 2001 to 2012. The Counselling Psychologist, 1-36.
• Connolly, J.R. (1980). Dimensions of belief and unbelief. University Press of America.
• Cragun, R.T., Kosmin, B., Keysar, A., Hammer, J.H. & Nielsen, M. (2012). On the receiving end: discrimination toward the non-religious in the United States. Journal of Contemporary Religion, 27, 1, 105-127.
• Edis, T. (2013). Atheism and the rise of science. In S. Bullivant and M. Ruse (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (pp. 398-413). Oxford University Press.
• Flint, R. (1903). Agnosticism. Charles Scribner’s Sons.
• Gurney, D., McKeown, S., Churchyard, J. & Howlett, N. (2013). Believe it or not: exploring the relationship between dogmatism and openness within non-religious samples. Personality and Individual Differences, 55, 936-940.
• Hadaway, C.K. (1989). Identifying American apostates: a cluster analysis. Journal for the Scientific Study of
• Religion, 28, 2, 201-215.
• Hashemi, M. (2016). A new typology of modern atheism: pilgrim atheism versus tourist atheism. Culture and Religion, 17(1), 56-72.
• Heaton, T.B. & Goodman, K.L. (1985). Religion and family formation. Review of Religious Research, 26(4), 343- 359.
• Hunsberger, B. & Altemeyer, B. (2006). Atheists: a groundbreaking study of America’s nonbelievers. Prometheus Books.
• Huxley, T.H. (1894). Collected essays (Volume 5). Cambridge University Press.
• ISSP Research Group (2020). International Social Survey Programme: Religion IV - ISSP 2018. GESIS Data Archive, Cologne. ZA7570 Data file Version 2.1.0, https://doi.org/10.4232/1.13629.
• Joshi, S.T. (2011). The unbelievers: the evolution of modern atheism. Prometheus Books.
• Keysar, A. & Navarro-Rivera, J. (2013). A world of atheism: global demographics. In S. Bullivant and M. Ruse (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (pp. 553-586). Oxford University Press.
• Keysar, A. (2014). Shifts along the American religious-secular spectrum. Secularism and Nonreligion, 3(1), 1- 16.
• Martin, M. (2007). Atheism and religion. In M. Martin (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Atheism (pp. 217- 232). Cambridge University Press.
• Nielsen, K. (2008). İnanç, inançsızlık ve denklik tartışması. Hikmet Yurdu, 1(2), 245-252.
• Norenzayan, A. & Gervais, W.M. (2013). The origins of religious disbelief. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17, 1, 20- 25.
• Oser, F.K., Reich, K.H. & Bucher, A.A. (1994). Development of belief and unbelief in childhood and adolescence. In J.Corveleyn and D. Hutsebaut (Eds.). Belief and Unbelief: Psychological Perspectives (pp. 39-62). Rodopi.
• Page, B. & Navarick, D.J. (2017). The three shades of atheism: how atheists differ in their views on god. Skeptic Magazine, 22(2), 50-54.
• Exline, J.J. & Rose, E. (2005). Religious and spiritual struggles. In R.F. Paloutzian and C.L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality (pp.315-330). The Guilford Press.
• Pew (2017, April 5). The changing global religious landscape. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2017/04/05/the-changing-global-religious-landscape/
• Rowe, W. (1979). The problem of evil and some varieties of atheism. American Philosophical Quarterly, 16(4), 335-341.
• Russell, B. (1997). Last philosophical testament 1943-68. Routledge.
• Russell, B. (2004). Why I am not a Christian. Routledge.
• Scobie, G.E.W. (1994). Belief, unbelief, and conversion experience. In J.Corveleyn and D. Hutsebaut (Eds.). Belief and Unbelief: Psychological Perspectives (pp. 87-98). Rodopi.
• Sevinç, K. (2017a). Ateizmin Boyutları ve Tipleri. İslami İlimler Dergisi, 12(12), 101-132.
• Sevinç, K. (2017b). İnançsızlık psikolojisi. Çamlıca Yayınları
• Shook, J.R. (2010). The god debates: a 21st century guide for atheist and believers. Wiley-Blackwell.
• Silver, C.F. (2013). Atheism, agnosticism, and nonbelief: a qualitative and quantitative study of type and narrative [Doctoral dissertation, University of Tennessee].
• Smith, J.M. (2011). Becoming an atheist in America: constructing identity and meaning from the rejection of theism. Sociology of Religion, 72(2), 215-237.
• Smith, J.M. (2013). Creating a godless community: the collective identity work of contemporary American atheists. Journal for the ScientificStudy of Religion, 52(1), 80-99.
• Streib, H. & Klein, C. (2013). Atheist, agnostics, and apostates. In K. Pargament, J.E. Julie and W.J. James (Eds.). APA Handbook of Psychology and Spirituality (pp. 713-728). American Psychological Association.
• Uecker, J.E., Regnerus, M.D. & Vaaler, M.L. (2007). Losing my religion: the social sources of religious decline in early adulthood. Social Forces, 85(4), 1-26.
• Zinnbauer, B.J., Pargament, K.I., Cole, B., Rye, M.S., Butter, E.M., Belavich, T.G., Hipp, K.M. Scott, A.B. & Kadar, J.L. (1997). Religion and spirituality: unfuzzying the fuzzy. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 36(4), 549- 564.
• Zuckerman, P. (2009). Atheism, secularity, and well-being: how the findings of social science counter negative stereotypes and assumptions. Sociology Compass, 3(6), 949-971.