Turkey as Normative Power: Connections with the Muslim Brotherhood during the Arab Spring

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 19 Sayı: 74, 3 - 19, 02.06.2022

Beatrix Futák-campbell Hylke De Sauvage Noltıng

https://doi.org/10.33458/uidergisi.1113201

Cited By: 4

Öz

The debate on normative power has mainly been focused on the European Union. This is partly owing to the fact that its conception is very Euro/Western centric. Yet, it is assumed that the concept is applicable to other actors. The aim of this paper therefore is to examine Turkey and whether its actions embody normative power in Syria and Egypt during the Arab Spring. It applies de Zutter’s four-step methodology of identifying normative power. The result is mixed. In the case of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood, Turkey tried to be a normative power but failed, due to a lack of recognition. In the case of the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood, Turkey was perceived as a normative power due to the combination of its Islamic identity, adherence to democracy, and the role of religion in its society. The implications of this are significant, since this paper demonstrates that normative power can travel outside of its Euro/Western centric context. At the same time, it also demonstrates that the norms are different and context specific.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Norms, Normative Power, Arab Spring, Islamic Identity, Turkish Model

Normatif Güç olarak Türkiye: Arap Baharı'nda Müslüman Kardeşlerle Bağlantılar

Öz

Normatif güç tartışması genel olarak Avrupa Birliği üzerinde odaklanmaktadır. Bu, kısmen kavramın Avrupa/ Batı merkezli olmasından kaynaklanmaktadır. Fakat kavramın diğer aktörler için de geçerli olduğu öne sürülebilir. Bu çerçevede, makalenin amacı Türkiye’nin ve Arap Baharı sırasında Suriye ve Mısır’daki eylemlerinin normatif güç özellikleri içerip içermediğini incelemektir. Çalışmada normatif gücü belirlemeye yönelik de Zutter’in dört aşamalı metodolojisi uygulanmaktadır. Sonuç karmaşıktır. Mısır’daki Müslüman Kardeşler örneğinde, Türkiye normatif bir güç olmaya çalışsa da tanınmaması nedeniyle başarısız olmuştur. Suriye’deki Müslüman Kardeşleri örneğinde ise Türkiye, İslami kimliği, demokrasiye bağlılığı ve toplumundaki dinin rolünün birleşimi nedeniyle normatif bir güç olarak algılanmıştır. Makalenin etkileri önemlidir nitekim normatif gücün Avrupa/Batı merkezi bağlamının dışına çıkabileceğini göstermektedir. Aynı zamanda, normların farklı ve bağlama özgü olduğunu da göstermektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Normlar, Normatif Güç, Arap Baharı, İslami Kimlik, Türk Modeli

Kaynakça

• Acharya, Amitav (2012). “Comparative Regionalism: A Field Whose Time has Come?”, The International Spectator, Vol. 47, No 1, p. 3–15.
• Acharya, Amitav (2016). “Regionalism beyond EU-centrism” Tanja A. Börzel and Thomas Risse (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Regionalism. Oxford, Oxford University Press, p. 109-130.
• Achcar, Gilbert (2013). “Extreme Capitalism of the Muslim Brothers”, Le Monde Diplomatique, June 2013, http:// mondediplo.com/2013/06/05brothers (Accessed June 2020).
• Arango, Tim (2012) “Turkey and Egypt Seek Alliance Amid Region’s Upheaval”, The New York Times http://www.nytimes. com/2012/10/19/world/middleeast/turkey-and-egypt-look-to-team-up-amid-tumult.html 18 October 2012 (Accessed June 2020).
• Aydın-Düzgit, Senem (2014). “The Seesaw Friendship Between Turkey’s AKP and Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood”, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 24 July 2014, http://carnegieendowment.org/2014/07/24/seesaw-friendshipbetween-turkey-s-akp-and-egypt-s-muslim-brotherhood (Accessed April 2020).
• Aydin, Mustafa, and Dizdaroğlu, Cihan, (2018) “Levantine Challenges on Turkish Foreign Policy”, Uluslararası İlişkiler, Volume 15, No. 60, pp. 89-103. http://www.uidergisi.com.tr/source/JUI_2018_60_89_103.pdf
• Bağcı, Hüseyin and Açıkalın, Şuay Nilhan (2015). “From Chaos to Cosmos: Strategic Depth and Turkish Foreign Policy in Syria”, Şefika Şule Erçetin and Santo Banerjee (eds.) Chaos, Complexity and Leadership 2013. Springer, Cham, p. 11-25.
• Balci, Bayram (2012). “Turkey’s Relations with the Syrian Opposition”, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 13 April 2012, http://carnegieendowment.org/2012/04/13/turkey-s-relations-with-syrian-opposition (Accessed June 2020)
• Behlül, Özkan (2019) “Relations between Turkey and Syria in the 1980’s and 1990’s: Political Islam, Muslim Brotherhood and Intelligence Wars”, Uluslararasi Iliskiler, Vol. 16, No. 62, pp. 5-25, DOI: 10.33458/uidergisi.588893
• Bilgin, Pinar (2019). Regional Security in the Middle East: A critical Perspective. London, Routledge.
• Bilgin, Pinar and Bilgic, Ali (2011). “Turkey’s ‘new’ Foreign Policy toward Eurasia’’, Eurasian Geography and Economics, Vol. 52, No 2, p. 173-195.
• Bilgin, Pinar and Futák-Campbell, Beatrix (2021). “Introduction: Globalizing (the Study of) Regionalism in International Relations”, Beatrix Futák-Campbell (Ed.), Globalizing Regionalism and International Relations. Bristol, Bristol University Press, p. 3-26.
• Bilgin, Pinar and Çapan, Zeynep Gülşah (2021). “Introduction to the Special Issue Regional International Relations and Global Worlds: Globalising International Relations”, Uluslararası İlişkiler, Vol. 18, No 70, p. 1-11.
• Candar, Cengiz (2012). Turkey’s Dual Challenge: The Kurdish Question and Syria. London, Democratic Progress Institute.
• Cameron-Moore, Simon and Nakhoul, Samia (2012). “Arab Leaders Must Change or Risk Defeat: Turkey”, Reuters, 30 March 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-minister-idUSTRE72T47F20110330 (Accessed April 2020)
• Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (2012). http://carnegieendowment.org/sada/?fa=46454 (Accessed April 2020).
• Carnegie Middle East Center (2016). “Syrian Muslim Brotherhood: Pledge and Charter on Syria.” Carnegie Middle East Center, http://carnegie-mec.org/syriaincrisis/?fa=48390&lang=en (Accessed April 2020)
• Cizre, Ümit (2008). Secular and Islamic Politics in Turkey: The Making of the Justice and Development Party. London, Routledge. Cleveland, William L. and Bunton, Martin (2008). A History of the Modern Middle East. 4th ed., New York, Boulder: Westview Press.
• Davutoğlu, Ahmet (2010). “Turkey’s Zero-Problems Foreign Policy”, Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2010/05/20/turkeys-zero-problems-foreign-policy/ ( June 2020)
• De Zutter, Elisabeth (2010). “Normative Power Spotting: An Ontological and Methodological Appraisal”, Journal of European Public Policy, Vol. 17, No 8, p. 1106-1127.
• Diez, Thomas (2005). “Constructing the Self and Changing Others: Reconsidering ‘Normative Power Europe’”, Millennium - Journal of International Studies, Vol. 33, No 3, p. 613–36.
• Diez, Thomas and Manners, Ian (2007). “Reflecting on normative-power Europe”, Felix Berenskoetter and Michael J. Williams (eds.), Power in World Politics. New York, Routledge.
• Egypt Independent (2011). “Erdogan Calls for a Secular Egypt”, Egypt Independent, http://www.egyptindependent.com/ news/erdogan-calls-secular-egypt (Accessed May 2020).
• El Dahsan, Mohamed (2012). “Where Will the Muslim Brotherhood Take Egypt’s Economy?”, Yale Global Online, http:// yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/where-will-muslim-brotherhood-take-egypts-economy (Accessed May 2020).
• El-Sherif, Ashraf (2014). “The Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood’s Failures”, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1 July 2014.
• Eralp, Doga Ulas (2016). Turkey as a Mediator: Stories of Success and Failure. Lanham, Lexington Books.
• For International Peace (2014). http://carnegieendowment.org/2014/07/01/egyptian-muslim-brotherhood-s-failurespub-56046 (Accessed April 2020).
• Futak-Campbell, Beatrix (2017). EU Foreign Policy Practices towards Russia and the Eastern Neighbours. Manchester, Manchester University Press.
• Futák-Campbell, Beatrix (2021). Globalizing Regionalism and International Relations. Bristol, Bristol University Press.
• Goren, Nimrod (2013). “If Only Morsi Had Listened to Erdoğan”,Hürriyet Daily News, 29 August,http://www.hurriyetdailynews. com/if-only-morsi-had-listened-to-erdogan.aspx?pageID=2%2038&nID=53409&NewsCatID=396 (Accessed April 2020).
• Gumuscu, Sebnem (2012). “Egypt Can’t Replicate the Turkish Model: But It Can Learn from It”, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 12 January 2012.
• Gurpinar, Bulut (2015). “Turkey and the Muslim Brotherhood: Crossing Roads in Syria”, Eurasian Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 3, No 4, p. 22–36.
• Gürzel, Aylin (2014). “Turkey’s Role as a Regional and Global Player and Its Power Capacity: Turkey’s Engagement with Other Emerging States”, Revista de Sociologia E Política, Vol. 22, No 50, p. 95-105.
• Hansen, Suzy (2012). “The Economic Vision of Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood Millionaires”, Bloomberg, 20 April 2012, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-04-19/the-economic-vision-of-egypts-muslim-brotherhoodmillionaires (Accessed June 2020).
• Hinnebusch, Raymond (2015). “Back to enmity: Turkey-Syria Relations since the Syrian Uprising”, Journal of German Orient Institute, Vol. 56, No 1, p. 14-22.
• International Institute for Strategic Studies aka IISS (2012). The Military Balance 2012. London, Routledge, http://www. iiss.org/en/publications/military%20balance/issues/the-military-balance-2012-77da
• Joshi, Shashank and Stein, Aaron (2013). “Not Quite ‘Zero Problems”, The RUSI Journal, Vol. 158, No 1, p. 28-38.
• Kardaş, Şaban (2012). “From Zero Problems to Leading the Change: Making Sense of Transformation in Turkey's Regional Policy."
• Transformation in Turkey’s Regional Policy”, International Policy and Leadership Institute, http://cms.cintacs.com/Content/ Userfiles/orig/541868d7d56ec8094c5b123a.pdf (Accessed June 2020).
• Kardaş, Şaban (2013). “Turkey: A Regional Power Facing a Changing International System”, Turkish Studies, Vol. 14, No 4, p. 637-660.
• Kassem, Taha (2013). “The Rise of Political Islam: Can the Turkish Model Be Applied Successfully in Egypt?”, International Journal of Humanities, Vol. 2, No 5, p. 9-22.
• Kavalski, Emilian (2013). ‘’The Struggle for Recognition of Normative Powers: Normative power Europe and Normative Power China in context”, Cooperation and Conflict, Vol. 48, No 2, p. 247-267.
• Kınacıoğlu, Müge (2021). ‘’The Rise and Fall of an Emerging Power: Agency in Turkey’s Identity-Based Regionalism’’, Beatrix Futák-Campbell (ed.), Globalizing Regionalism and International Relations. London, Routledge, p. 207-232.
• Lefevre, Raphaël (2013). Ashes of Hama: The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria. New York, Oxford University Press.
• Ling, Lily (2013). The Dao of World Politics: towards a Post-Westphalian, Worldist International Relations. London, Routledge. Mandaville, Peter (2014). Islam and Politics. Abingdon, Routledge.
• Manners, Ian (2013). “Assessing the Decennial, Reassessing the Global: Understanding European Union Normative Power in Global Politics”, Cooperation and Conflict, Vol. 48, No 2, p. 304-329.
• Manners, Ian (2002). “Normative Power Europe: A Contradiction in Terms?”, Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 40, No 2, p. 235–258.
• Nasr, Seyyed Vali Reza (2005). “The Rise of ‘Muslim Democracy’”, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 16, No 2, p. 13-27.
• Nolte, Detlef (2010). “How to Compare Regional Powers: Analytical Concepts and Research Topics”, Review of International Studies, Vol. 36, No 4, p. 881–901.
• Oktav, Özden Zeynep and Çelikaksoy, Aycan (2015). “The Syrian Refugee Challenge and Turkey’s Quest for Normative Power in the Middle East”, International Journal, Vol. 70, No 3, p. 408–20.
• Onis, Ziya (2012). “Turkey and the Arab Spring: Between Ethics and Self-Interest”, Insight Turkey, Vol. 14, No 3 p. 45-63.
• Özbudun, Ergun (2014). “AKP at the Crossroads: Erdoğan’s Majoritarian Drift”, South European Society and Politics, Vol. 19, No 2, p. 155–67.
• Parlar Dal, Emel (2013). “Assessing Turkey’s ‘Normative’ Power in the Middle East and North Africa Region: New Dynamics and Their Limitations”, Turkish Studies, Vol. 14, No 4, p. 709–34.
• Phillips, Christopher (2012). Into the Quagmire: Turkey’s Frustrated Syria. London, Chatham House, December 2012, https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Middle%20East/1212bp_phillips.pdf (Accessed June 2020).
• Shabi, Rachel (2012). “Egyptians are Being Held Back by Neoliberalism, not Religion”, The Guardian, https://www. theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/dec/21/egyptians-held-back-neoliberalism-not-religion (Accessed April 2020).
• Shadid, Anthony (2011). “Turkey Predicts Partnership with Egypt as Regional Anchors”, The New York Times, 18 September, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/19/world/middleeast/turkey-predicts-partnership-with-egypt-as-regionalanchors.html (Accessed June 2020).
• Solingen, Etel (2015). Comparative Regionalism: Economics and Security. London, Routledge.
• Stein, Aaron (2015). Turkey’s New Foreign Policy: Davutoglu, the AKP and the Pursuit of Regional Order. Abingdon, Routledge.
• Tickner, Arlene B. and Wæver, Ole (2009). International Relations Scholarship around the World. London, Routledge.
• Tocci, Nathalie (ed.) (2008). Who is a Normative Foreign Policy Actor: The European Union and its Global Partners. Brussels, Centre for European Policy Studies.
• The Daily Star (2011). “Erdogan Receives Hero’s Welcome”, https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Erdogan+receives+ hero’s+welcome.-a0267052589 (Accessed June 2020).
• The Experience of the Muslim Brotherhood in Power 2012-2013. London, 9 Bedford Row, 2015. http://9bri.com/wp-content/ uploads/2015/06/Report-II.9BRi.Muslim-Brotherhood-in-Power.pdf
• Ustun, Kadir and Yilmaz, Nuh (2011). The Erdoğan Effect: Turkey, Egypt and the Future of the Middle East https://www. thecairoreview.com/essays/the-erdogan-effect-turkey-egypt-and-the-future-of-the-middle-east/ Fall 2011. (Accessed May 2020)
• Warleigh-Lack, Alex and Rosamond, Ben (2010). “Across the EU Studies-New Regionalism Frontier: Invitation to Dialogue”, Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 48, No 4, p. 993-1014.
• World Bank (2014). Evaluation of the EU-Turkey Customs Union. Istanbul, World Bank, http://documents.worldbank.org/ curated/en/298151468308967367/Evaluation-of-the-EU-Turkey-customs-union (Accessed April 2020).
• World Bank (2017). “Foreign Direct Investment, Net Inflows (BoP, Current US$)”, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ BX.KLT.DINV.CD.WD?page=2 (Accessed April 2020).
• World Bank (2017). “GDP at Market Prices (current US$)”, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD (Accessed April 2020).
• World Bank (2017). “GDP per Capita (current US$)”, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?page=2 (Accessed April 2020).