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Covid-19 Pandemisinin Bizlere Anımsattıkları: Sovyet ve Rus Biyolojik Silah Programının Yeniden Değerlendirilmesi

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 5 Sayı: 2, 773 - 803, 27.12.2021

Öz

Tarihte, biyolojik ajanların insanlar ve hayvanlara karşı silah olarak kullanıldığı pek çok örneğe rastlanır. Özellikle 20. yüzyılda -başta Almanya, Japonya, ABD, Birleşik Krallık ve Sovyetler Birliği olmak üzere- gerek sistematik olarak gerekse de bireysel girişimler aracılığıyla - Heinrich Himmler gibi- biyolojik silahların (BS) üretilmesine yönelik oldukça önemli çabalar görülür. Sovyetler Birliği 1972’de biyolojik silahların araştırılmasını, kullanılmasını ve üretimini yasaklayan Biyolojik Silahlar Konvansiyonu’nu imzalamasına karşın, bugün bile Soğuk Savaş sonrası Rusya’sında hala devam edip etmediği tartışma konusu olan BS programına devam etmiştir.

COVID-19 Pandemisi bizlere olası bir BS tehdidini yeniden anımsatmıştır, çünkü BS programlarının doğaları itibariyle gizli yürütülmeleri, hangi devletlerin bu tür projelere ne kadar kaynak ayırdıkları sorusunu akla getirmektedir. Bu çalışma, Batılı ve Rus kaynaklar aracılığıyla Sovyetler Birliği tarafından yürütülen BS programına odaklanmıştır. Çalışma, temel olarak, COVID-19’un da anımsattığı üzere, biyolojik silahların olası bir tehdit olmaya devam ettiği görüşüne dayanmaktadır.

Kaynakça

  • Alibek, Ken and Handelman Stephen. Biohazard: The Chilling Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World, New York, Random House, 1999.
  • American Scientific, Understanding Germ Warfare, New York, Warner Books, 2002.
  • Aris Ben, Roger Highfield and Philip Delves. “Warning of smallpox terror risk”, The Telegraph, November 06, 2001.
  • Balmer, Brian. Britain and Biological Warfare: Expert Advice and Science Policy 1930-1965, London, Palgrave, 2001.
  • Barnaby, Wendy. The Plague Makers: The Secret World of Biological Warfare, London, The Bath Press, 1999.
  • Barenblatt, Daniel. A Plague upon Humanity: The Secret Genocide of Axis Japan’s Germ Warfare Operation, New York, Harpercollins, 2004.
  • Boisov, V. Voennaya Biologiya v SSSR Na Rubezhe 20-40 Godov, Rukopis (Military Biology in the USSR at the Turn of the 20-40s. Manuscript), 1995.
  • Brovko, Vladimir. “Kto i Kogda v SSSR Sozdal Biologicheskoye Orujiye? (Who & When Created Biological Weapons in the USSR)”, https://narodna.pravda.com.ua/history/4f65271176b91/view_print/, (Accessed on July 21, 2020).
  • Center for Nonproliferation Studies, “Chronology of State Use and Biological and Chemical Weapons Control”, Monterey Institute of International Studies, http://cns.miis.edu/research/cbw/pastuse.htm, (Accessed on April 11, 2020).
  • Christopher George, Theodore J. Cieslak, Julie A. Pavlin and Edward M. Eitzen, “Biological Warfare: A Historical Perspective”, Joshua Lederberg (ed.), Biological Weapons: Limiting the Threat, Cambridge, the MTI Press, 2001, pp.17-36.
  • Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction, signed on April 10, 1972”, http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/bwc/text, (Accessed on April 22, 2020).
  • Croddy, Eric. Chemical and Biological Warfare: A Comprehensive Survey for the Concerned Citizen, New York, Springer, 2002.
  • Dando, Malcolm. The New Biological Weapons Threat, Proliferation and Control, Boulder, Lynne Rienner, 2001.
  • Domaradsky, Igor V. and Orent Wendy. Biowarrior: Inside the Soviet/Russian Biological War Machine, New York, Prometheus Books, 2003.
  • Block, M. Steven, “Living Nightmares: Biological Threats enabled by Molecular Biology", Drell Sidney D., Abraham D. Sofaer and George D. Wilson, The New Terror: Facing the Threat of Biological and Chemical Weapons, Stanford, Hoover Institution Press, 1999, pp. 39-75.
  • Duranty, Walter. “Soviet Threatens to Use Gas in War”, The New York Times, February 23, 1938.
  • Fedorov, Lev. Sovetskoye Biyologicheskoye Orujiye: İstoriya, Ekologiya, Politika (Soviet Biological Weapons: History, Ecology, Politics), Moskow, MCоEС Publication, 2005. Fedorov, Lev. Ot Hlora i Fosgena Do “Novichka”. İstoriya Sovetskogo Himicheskogo Orujiya (From Chlorine and Phosgene to a "Novichok". History of Soviet Chemical Weapons), Moskow, Algoritm, 2019.
  • Fedorov, Lev. Mikroubisi İz Probirok. Shit İli Mech Protiv Zapada (Micro Killer from the Test Tubes. Shield or Sword Against the West), Moskow, Rodina Publication, 2018.
  • Fedorov, Lev. “Podgotovka K Nastupatelnoi Biyologiçeskoi Voine. Voennaya Sistema Biyologicheskoi Voini (Preparing for Offensive Biological Warfare. Military System of Biological Warfare)”, http://levfedorov.ru/bioweapon-2-02/, (Accessed on June 7,2020).
  • Fedorov, Lev. “Epidemiya Sverdlovsk-1979” (“Epidemic of Sverdlovsk-1979”), http://levfedorov.ru/bioweapon-3-02/, (Accessed on April 27, 2020)
  • Fedorov, Lev. Kruşeniye Voenno-Biologiçeskoi İmperiyi (The Collapse of the Military-Biological Empire), http://levfedorov.ru/bioweapon-4-04/, (Accessed on May 4, 2020).
  • Fedorov, Yuri. “Biyologicheskaya Voina 2.0. Yuri Fedorov O Patoy Probleme (Biological Warfare 2.0. Yuri Fedorov About the Fifth Problem)”, https://www.svoboda.org/a/30593521.html, (Accessed on July 24, 2020).
  • Glavnoye Voenno-Himicheskoye Upravleniye Krasnoi Armiyi (Head Military Chemical Directorate of the Red Army)”, http://guides.rusarchives.ru/node/16305, (Accessed on June 26, 2020).
  • Gnatik, Ekaterina. “Gennaya İnzheneriya i Biologicheskaya Bezopasnost (Genetic Engineering and Biological Safety)”, Vestnik RUDN, Seriya Yuridicheskiye Nauki, No 2, 2004, pp. 79-88.
  • Haar, Barend Ter. The Future of Biological Weapons, The Washington Papers, The Center for Strategic and International Studies, Washington D.C., 1991.
  • Harris, Robert and Jeremy Paxman, A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare, New York, Random House, 2002.
  • Harris, Robert and Jeremy Paxman, A Higher form of Killing. The Secret Story of Gas and Germ Warfare, London, Chatto and Windus Publishers, 1982.
  • Harris, Sheldon H. Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932-1945, and the American Cover Up, New York, Routledge, 2002.
  • Koplow, David A. Smallpox: The Fight to Eradicate a Global Scourge, Berkeley, University of California Press, 2003.
  • Kostochkin, Nikolay. “Podopytnye Lyudy: Zhertvami Biologicheskogo Oruzhiya Stanovilis Sluchayniye Grazhdane (The Experimental Human. Victims of Biological Weapons in the USSR were Random Citizens)”, Nasha Versiya Newspaper, No 23 (448), 23-29 June, 2014.
  • Kuhn, Jens H. and Milton Leitenberg. “The Soviet Biological Weapons Program”, Filippa Lentsoz (ed.), Biological Threats in the 21st Century: The Politics, People, Science and Historical Roots, London, Imperial College Press, 2016, pp.79-102.
  • Leitenberg, M., Raymon A. Zilinkas and Jens H. Kuhn, "The Soviet Biological Weapons Program: A History", London, Harward University Press, 2012.
  • Lentzos, Filippa. “What happened after an explosion at a Russian disease research lab called VECTOR?”, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, November 2017, https://thebulletin.org/2019/11/what-happened-after-an-explosion-at-a-russian-disease-research-lab-called-vector/, (Accessed on July 12, 2020).
  • Levine, Herbert M. Chemical and Biological Weapons in Our Times, New York, Franklin Watts Publisher, 2000.
  • Mangold, Tom and Goldberg Jeff. Plague Wars: The Terrifying Reality of Biological Warfare, New York, St. Martin’s Press, 1999.
  • Miller, Judith, Stephen Engelberg and William J. Broad, Germs: Biological Weapons and Americas Secret War, New York, Touchstone, 2002.
  • Miller, Judith. “U.S. Aid Is Diverted to Germ Warfare, Russian Scientists Say”, The New York Times, January 25, 2000.
  • Miyasnikov, Vladimir. Zaşita Ot Orujiya Massovogo Porajeniya (Protection from Weapons of Mass Destruction), Moskow, Voenizdat Publication, 1989.
  • Nikolski, Aleksey. “Being strong: National security guarantees for Russia”, Russia Today, February 19, 2012, https://www.rt.com/russia/official-word/strong-putin-military-russia-711/, (Accessed on June 10, 2020). Osterholm, Michael T. and Schartz John. Living Terrors: What America Needs to Know to Survive the Coming Bioterrorist Catastrophe, New York, Delta Press, 2000.
  • Pluzhnikov, Sergei. “Aleksei Shvedov, Ubiytsa İz Probirki (Test Tube Killer)”, https://www.sovsekretno.ru/articles/ubiytsa-iz-probirki/, (Accessed on April 24, 2020) Putin, Vladimir. “Bit Silnimi: Garantiyi Nasionalnoi Bezopasnosti Dliya Rossiyi (To Be Strong: National Security Guarantees for Russia)”, https://rg.ru/2012/02/20/putin-armiya.html, (Accessed on May 7, 2020).
  • Putin Rasskazal O Noveishih Vidah Rossiskogo Voorujeniya (Putin Spoke About the Latest Types of Russian Weapons), https://ria.ru/20180301/1515566394.html, (Accessed on April 17, 2020).
  • Regis, Ed. The Biology of Doom: The History of America’s Secret Germ Warfare Project, New York, Henry Holt and Company, 1999.
  • Rimmington, Anthony. Stalin's Secret Weapon: The Origins of Soviet Biological Warfare, New York, Oxford University Press, 2018.
  • Schneider, Barry R. “Bio-defense Readiness; Thoughts after September 11th.”, Schneider Barry and Jim Davis (eds.), The Gathering Biological Warfare Storm, Alabama, USAF Counterproliferation Center, 2002.
  • Simonova A.E. “Bioterrorizm Kak Ugroza Nasionalnoi Bezopasnosti Rossiyi (Bioterrorism as A Threat to Russia's National Security)”, Sulakshin S.S. (ed.), Nasionalnoye Bezopasnost: Nauçnoye i Gosudarstvennoye Upravlençeskoye Soderjaniye (National Security: Scientific and State Management Content), Moskow, Nauchny Ekspert Publication, 2010.
  • Spiers, Edward M. Chemical and Biological Weapons: A Study of Proliferation, New York, St. Martin's Press, 1994.
  • Solomonov, Yuri. “Çelovek v Mire Epidemiyi (The Man in the World of Epidemics)”, http://www.ng.ru/stsenarii/2014-10-28/9_epidemy.html, (Accessed on May 3, 2020).
  • Soviet Biological Warfare Threat, prepared for the US Department of Defense Intelligence, 1986, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB61/Sverd26.pdf (Accessed on May 25, 2020).
  • Udmansev, Vadim. “Voennaya Mikrobiyologiya Rossiyi: Virusologiçeskomu Sentru Ministerstva Oboronı Rossiyi İspolnilos 50 Let (Military Microbiology of Russia: The Virology Center of the Ministry of Defense is 50 Years Old)”, Voenno-Promishlenny Kurer (Military-Industrial Courier), No:16 (33), April 28 – May 11, 2004.
  • Vasiljev, Konstantin. “Tragediya Russkoi Mikrobiyologiyi (Tragedy of Russian Microbiology)”, Acta Medico-Historica Rigensia, I (XX), 1992.
  • Volkov, S. “U Ekaterinburga Bil Svoi Chernobil (Ekaterinburg Had Its Own Chernobyl)”, Uralski Rabochi Newspaper, April 11, 1998.
  • Voronov, Vladimir. “Ohotniki Za Boevymi Shtammami. Kak Krasnaya Armiya Perenimala v Machjuriyi Opit Yaponskih Razrabotchikov Bakteriologicheskogo Orujiya (Hunters for Combat Strains. How the Red Army Adopted the Experience of Japanese Developers of Bacteriological Weapons in Manchuria)”, https://novayagazeta.ru/articles/2020/05/05/85223-ohotniki-za-boevymi-shtammami, (Accessed on May 9, 2020).
  • Vyacheslav Yankulin. “Sindrom Сhumy, İli Khozhdeniye Po Mukam Odnogo İz Sozdateley Bakteriologicheskogo Oruzhiya (Plague Syndrome, or A Walk Through the Torments of One of the Creators of Biological Weapons)”, Izvestiya Newspaper, October 15, 1997.
  • Wright, Pearce. “Vladimir Pasechnik: Defector Who Alerted the West to the Danger of Soviet Biological Weapons Production”, The Guardian, November 28, 2001.
  • Wright, Susan. “Geopolitical Origins”, Susan Wright (ed.), Biological Warfare and Disarmament, New York, Rowman& Littlefield, 2002.
  • Zenova, N. “Voennaya Taina. Priçini Tragediyi, Sluchivsheisiya v Sverdlovske, Doljni Bit Rassledovani (Military Secret. The Reasons for the Tragedy That Happened in Sverdlovsk Must Be Investigated)”, Literaturnaya Newspaper, August 22, 1990.
  • Zhilin, İvan. “Marshal Yazvi. 41 God Nazad v Sverdlovske Nachalas Epidemiya Sibirskoi Yazvi (Marshal of Ulcer. 41 Years Ago, Began Epidemic of Siberian Ulcer in Sverdlovsk)”, Novaya Newspaper, July 6, 2020.
  • Zilinskas, Raymond A. “The Anti-Plague System and the Soviet Biological Warfare Program”, Critical Reviews in Microbiology, Nu.34, 2006.
Yıl 2021, Cilt: 5 Sayı: 2, 773 - 803, 27.12.2021

Öz

Kaynakça

  • Alibek, Ken and Handelman Stephen. Biohazard: The Chilling Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World, New York, Random House, 1999.
  • American Scientific, Understanding Germ Warfare, New York, Warner Books, 2002.
  • Aris Ben, Roger Highfield and Philip Delves. “Warning of smallpox terror risk”, The Telegraph, November 06, 2001.
  • Balmer, Brian. Britain and Biological Warfare: Expert Advice and Science Policy 1930-1965, London, Palgrave, 2001.
  • Barnaby, Wendy. The Plague Makers: The Secret World of Biological Warfare, London, The Bath Press, 1999.
  • Barenblatt, Daniel. A Plague upon Humanity: The Secret Genocide of Axis Japan’s Germ Warfare Operation, New York, Harpercollins, 2004.
  • Boisov, V. Voennaya Biologiya v SSSR Na Rubezhe 20-40 Godov, Rukopis (Military Biology in the USSR at the Turn of the 20-40s. Manuscript), 1995.
  • Brovko, Vladimir. “Kto i Kogda v SSSR Sozdal Biologicheskoye Orujiye? (Who & When Created Biological Weapons in the USSR)”, https://narodna.pravda.com.ua/history/4f65271176b91/view_print/, (Accessed on July 21, 2020).
  • Center for Nonproliferation Studies, “Chronology of State Use and Biological and Chemical Weapons Control”, Monterey Institute of International Studies, http://cns.miis.edu/research/cbw/pastuse.htm, (Accessed on April 11, 2020).
  • Christopher George, Theodore J. Cieslak, Julie A. Pavlin and Edward M. Eitzen, “Biological Warfare: A Historical Perspective”, Joshua Lederberg (ed.), Biological Weapons: Limiting the Threat, Cambridge, the MTI Press, 2001, pp.17-36.
  • Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction, signed on April 10, 1972”, http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/t/bwc/text, (Accessed on April 22, 2020).
  • Croddy, Eric. Chemical and Biological Warfare: A Comprehensive Survey for the Concerned Citizen, New York, Springer, 2002.
  • Dando, Malcolm. The New Biological Weapons Threat, Proliferation and Control, Boulder, Lynne Rienner, 2001.
  • Domaradsky, Igor V. and Orent Wendy. Biowarrior: Inside the Soviet/Russian Biological War Machine, New York, Prometheus Books, 2003.
  • Block, M. Steven, “Living Nightmares: Biological Threats enabled by Molecular Biology", Drell Sidney D., Abraham D. Sofaer and George D. Wilson, The New Terror: Facing the Threat of Biological and Chemical Weapons, Stanford, Hoover Institution Press, 1999, pp. 39-75.
  • Duranty, Walter. “Soviet Threatens to Use Gas in War”, The New York Times, February 23, 1938.
  • Fedorov, Lev. Sovetskoye Biyologicheskoye Orujiye: İstoriya, Ekologiya, Politika (Soviet Biological Weapons: History, Ecology, Politics), Moskow, MCоEС Publication, 2005. Fedorov, Lev. Ot Hlora i Fosgena Do “Novichka”. İstoriya Sovetskogo Himicheskogo Orujiya (From Chlorine and Phosgene to a "Novichok". History of Soviet Chemical Weapons), Moskow, Algoritm, 2019.
  • Fedorov, Lev. Mikroubisi İz Probirok. Shit İli Mech Protiv Zapada (Micro Killer from the Test Tubes. Shield or Sword Against the West), Moskow, Rodina Publication, 2018.
  • Fedorov, Lev. “Podgotovka K Nastupatelnoi Biyologiçeskoi Voine. Voennaya Sistema Biyologicheskoi Voini (Preparing for Offensive Biological Warfare. Military System of Biological Warfare)”, http://levfedorov.ru/bioweapon-2-02/, (Accessed on June 7,2020).
  • Fedorov, Lev. “Epidemiya Sverdlovsk-1979” (“Epidemic of Sverdlovsk-1979”), http://levfedorov.ru/bioweapon-3-02/, (Accessed on April 27, 2020)
  • Fedorov, Lev. Kruşeniye Voenno-Biologiçeskoi İmperiyi (The Collapse of the Military-Biological Empire), http://levfedorov.ru/bioweapon-4-04/, (Accessed on May 4, 2020).
  • Fedorov, Yuri. “Biyologicheskaya Voina 2.0. Yuri Fedorov O Patoy Probleme (Biological Warfare 2.0. Yuri Fedorov About the Fifth Problem)”, https://www.svoboda.org/a/30593521.html, (Accessed on July 24, 2020).
  • Glavnoye Voenno-Himicheskoye Upravleniye Krasnoi Armiyi (Head Military Chemical Directorate of the Red Army)”, http://guides.rusarchives.ru/node/16305, (Accessed on June 26, 2020).
  • Gnatik, Ekaterina. “Gennaya İnzheneriya i Biologicheskaya Bezopasnost (Genetic Engineering and Biological Safety)”, Vestnik RUDN, Seriya Yuridicheskiye Nauki, No 2, 2004, pp. 79-88.
  • Haar, Barend Ter. The Future of Biological Weapons, The Washington Papers, The Center for Strategic and International Studies, Washington D.C., 1991.
  • Harris, Robert and Jeremy Paxman, A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare, New York, Random House, 2002.
  • Harris, Robert and Jeremy Paxman, A Higher form of Killing. The Secret Story of Gas and Germ Warfare, London, Chatto and Windus Publishers, 1982.
  • Harris, Sheldon H. Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932-1945, and the American Cover Up, New York, Routledge, 2002.
  • Koplow, David A. Smallpox: The Fight to Eradicate a Global Scourge, Berkeley, University of California Press, 2003.
  • Kostochkin, Nikolay. “Podopytnye Lyudy: Zhertvami Biologicheskogo Oruzhiya Stanovilis Sluchayniye Grazhdane (The Experimental Human. Victims of Biological Weapons in the USSR were Random Citizens)”, Nasha Versiya Newspaper, No 23 (448), 23-29 June, 2014.
  • Kuhn, Jens H. and Milton Leitenberg. “The Soviet Biological Weapons Program”, Filippa Lentsoz (ed.), Biological Threats in the 21st Century: The Politics, People, Science and Historical Roots, London, Imperial College Press, 2016, pp.79-102.
  • Leitenberg, M., Raymon A. Zilinkas and Jens H. Kuhn, "The Soviet Biological Weapons Program: A History", London, Harward University Press, 2012.
  • Lentzos, Filippa. “What happened after an explosion at a Russian disease research lab called VECTOR?”, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, November 2017, https://thebulletin.org/2019/11/what-happened-after-an-explosion-at-a-russian-disease-research-lab-called-vector/, (Accessed on July 12, 2020).
  • Levine, Herbert M. Chemical and Biological Weapons in Our Times, New York, Franklin Watts Publisher, 2000.
  • Mangold, Tom and Goldberg Jeff. Plague Wars: The Terrifying Reality of Biological Warfare, New York, St. Martin’s Press, 1999.
  • Miller, Judith, Stephen Engelberg and William J. Broad, Germs: Biological Weapons and Americas Secret War, New York, Touchstone, 2002.
  • Miller, Judith. “U.S. Aid Is Diverted to Germ Warfare, Russian Scientists Say”, The New York Times, January 25, 2000.
  • Miyasnikov, Vladimir. Zaşita Ot Orujiya Massovogo Porajeniya (Protection from Weapons of Mass Destruction), Moskow, Voenizdat Publication, 1989.
  • Nikolski, Aleksey. “Being strong: National security guarantees for Russia”, Russia Today, February 19, 2012, https://www.rt.com/russia/official-word/strong-putin-military-russia-711/, (Accessed on June 10, 2020). Osterholm, Michael T. and Schartz John. Living Terrors: What America Needs to Know to Survive the Coming Bioterrorist Catastrophe, New York, Delta Press, 2000.
  • Pluzhnikov, Sergei. “Aleksei Shvedov, Ubiytsa İz Probirki (Test Tube Killer)”, https://www.sovsekretno.ru/articles/ubiytsa-iz-probirki/, (Accessed on April 24, 2020) Putin, Vladimir. “Bit Silnimi: Garantiyi Nasionalnoi Bezopasnosti Dliya Rossiyi (To Be Strong: National Security Guarantees for Russia)”, https://rg.ru/2012/02/20/putin-armiya.html, (Accessed on May 7, 2020).
  • Putin Rasskazal O Noveishih Vidah Rossiskogo Voorujeniya (Putin Spoke About the Latest Types of Russian Weapons), https://ria.ru/20180301/1515566394.html, (Accessed on April 17, 2020).
  • Regis, Ed. The Biology of Doom: The History of America’s Secret Germ Warfare Project, New York, Henry Holt and Company, 1999.
  • Rimmington, Anthony. Stalin's Secret Weapon: The Origins of Soviet Biological Warfare, New York, Oxford University Press, 2018.
  • Schneider, Barry R. “Bio-defense Readiness; Thoughts after September 11th.”, Schneider Barry and Jim Davis (eds.), The Gathering Biological Warfare Storm, Alabama, USAF Counterproliferation Center, 2002.
  • Simonova A.E. “Bioterrorizm Kak Ugroza Nasionalnoi Bezopasnosti Rossiyi (Bioterrorism as A Threat to Russia's National Security)”, Sulakshin S.S. (ed.), Nasionalnoye Bezopasnost: Nauçnoye i Gosudarstvennoye Upravlençeskoye Soderjaniye (National Security: Scientific and State Management Content), Moskow, Nauchny Ekspert Publication, 2010.
  • Spiers, Edward M. Chemical and Biological Weapons: A Study of Proliferation, New York, St. Martin's Press, 1994.
  • Solomonov, Yuri. “Çelovek v Mire Epidemiyi (The Man in the World of Epidemics)”, http://www.ng.ru/stsenarii/2014-10-28/9_epidemy.html, (Accessed on May 3, 2020).
  • Soviet Biological Warfare Threat, prepared for the US Department of Defense Intelligence, 1986, https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB61/Sverd26.pdf (Accessed on May 25, 2020).
  • Udmansev, Vadim. “Voennaya Mikrobiyologiya Rossiyi: Virusologiçeskomu Sentru Ministerstva Oboronı Rossiyi İspolnilos 50 Let (Military Microbiology of Russia: The Virology Center of the Ministry of Defense is 50 Years Old)”, Voenno-Promishlenny Kurer (Military-Industrial Courier), No:16 (33), April 28 – May 11, 2004.
  • Vasiljev, Konstantin. “Tragediya Russkoi Mikrobiyologiyi (Tragedy of Russian Microbiology)”, Acta Medico-Historica Rigensia, I (XX), 1992.
  • Volkov, S. “U Ekaterinburga Bil Svoi Chernobil (Ekaterinburg Had Its Own Chernobyl)”, Uralski Rabochi Newspaper, April 11, 1998.
  • Voronov, Vladimir. “Ohotniki Za Boevymi Shtammami. Kak Krasnaya Armiya Perenimala v Machjuriyi Opit Yaponskih Razrabotchikov Bakteriologicheskogo Orujiya (Hunters for Combat Strains. How the Red Army Adopted the Experience of Japanese Developers of Bacteriological Weapons in Manchuria)”, https://novayagazeta.ru/articles/2020/05/05/85223-ohotniki-za-boevymi-shtammami, (Accessed on May 9, 2020).
  • Vyacheslav Yankulin. “Sindrom Сhumy, İli Khozhdeniye Po Mukam Odnogo İz Sozdateley Bakteriologicheskogo Oruzhiya (Plague Syndrome, or A Walk Through the Torments of One of the Creators of Biological Weapons)”, Izvestiya Newspaper, October 15, 1997.
  • Wright, Pearce. “Vladimir Pasechnik: Defector Who Alerted the West to the Danger of Soviet Biological Weapons Production”, The Guardian, November 28, 2001.
  • Wright, Susan. “Geopolitical Origins”, Susan Wright (ed.), Biological Warfare and Disarmament, New York, Rowman& Littlefield, 2002.
  • Zenova, N. “Voennaya Taina. Priçini Tragediyi, Sluchivsheisiya v Sverdlovske, Doljni Bit Rassledovani (Military Secret. The Reasons for the Tragedy That Happened in Sverdlovsk Must Be Investigated)”, Literaturnaya Newspaper, August 22, 1990.
  • Zhilin, İvan. “Marshal Yazvi. 41 God Nazad v Sverdlovske Nachalas Epidemiya Sibirskoi Yazvi (Marshal of Ulcer. 41 Years Ago, Began Epidemic of Siberian Ulcer in Sverdlovsk)”, Novaya Newspaper, July 6, 2020.
  • Zilinskas, Raymond A. “The Anti-Plague System and the Soviet Biological Warfare Program”, Critical Reviews in Microbiology, Nu.34, 2006.
Toplam 58 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Siyaset Bilimi
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Şafak Oğuz 0000-0001-6758-175X

Suat Taşkesen

Yayımlanma Tarihi 27 Aralık 2021
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2021 Cilt: 5 Sayı: 2

Kaynak Göster

APA Oğuz, Ş., & Taşkesen, S. (2021). Covid-19 Pandemisinin Bizlere Anımsattıkları: Sovyet ve Rus Biyolojik Silah Programının Yeniden Değerlendirilmesi. Uluslararası Kriz Ve Siyaset Araştırmaları Dergisi, 5(2), 773-803.