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Santa Cruz ve Midilli Adasında Güneşçiçeği Bitkisinde Balözü Salgısı ve Arı Çeşitliliği: Bal Arıları Nereye Kayboldu?

Yıl 2009, Cilt: 09 Sayı: 3, 109 - 121, 28.08.2009

Öz

Amaç: Bu çalışmanın amacı Centaurea solstitialis (Güneşçiçeği) bitkisinin Santa Cruz adası (ABD) ve Ege Denizin‟de bulunan Midilli adasında (Yunanistan) balözü akımı ve bu bitkiyi ziyaret eden arıların sayı ve çeşitliliğinin karşılaştırılmasıdır. Güneşçiçeği bitkisinin anavatanı Avrasya olup kendine döllenemeyen bir bitkidir. Yani döllenme ve tohumun oluşması için başka bir bitkiden çiçek özü veya polenin gelmesi gerekmektedir. Bu yüzden bu tip bitkiler gelecek nesillerinin devamı sağlayacak tohum oluşturulması için tozlayıcıları özellikle arıları cezbetmek için balözü, çiçek özü ve yağ gibi maddeler salgılar. Gereç ve Yöntem: Güneşçiçeği bitkisinin doğal alanı Avrasya olup batı Amerika‟da yabancı bir bitki olarak oldukça istilacı bir yapıdadır. Balözü akımı çiçek tablaları arıların girmesi engelleyecek delikli kafes torbalar ile örtülerek çiçekçiklerdeki balözü miktarı ölçülmüştür. Balözü mevcut veya açık olan çiçek verileri ise delikli kafes torba ile kapatılmayan ve arılara açık olan çiçeklerden toplanmıştır. Her iki bölgede 15 bitki belirlenip 1m aralıklarla kafesle kapatılmıştır. Çalışmanın başlangıç gününden önce saat 16:00 ve 18:00 de her bitkiden iki çiçek tablası delikli kafes torba ile kapatılmıştır. Ertesi gün sabah delikli kafes torba çiçek tablalarından birinden çıkarılıp arıların girişine izin verilmiştir. Bu çiçeklere duran balözü denilmiş açık kalan çiçek tablalarına ise akan balözü denilmiştir. Ertesi gün saat 7:00 ve 19:00 arasında her 2 saatte bir 0.25 μl kapillari ince tüpler her çiçek tablasındaki çiçekçiğe sokularak balözü alınmış ve balözü miktarı ölçümleri yapılmıştır. Kapalı çiçeklerden balözü alındıktan sonra hemen tekrar delikli torba kafesler ile kapatılmıştır. Çiçekçikten balözü alındıktan sonda kalıcı Sharpie kalemle işaretlenip her toplamada farklı çiçekçiğin kullanılması sağlanmıştır. Arı kayıtları balözü kayıtlarının ilk gününden sonra başlamış ve balözü için kullanılan bitkiler kullanılmıştır. Bu bitkiler arasında 6 kez 5 dakika sürecek şekilde yürüyerek ziyaret eden arılar belirlenip kayıt edilmiştir. Her çalışma 30 dk sürmüş olup 9:00 ve 12:00 arasında günde 4 kez tekrar edilmiştir. Balözü kalitesi ise balözü biriktikten sonra bitkiler kesilip laboratuvara götürülmüş ve santrifüj edildikten sonar refraktometre ile ölçülmüştür. Bulgu ve Sonuçlar: Centaurea solstitialis (Güneşçiçeği) bitkisini ziyaret eden arıların bu bitki ile birlikteliğini ve arı sayımlarını hem Midilli adası ve hemde Santa Cruz adasında karşılaştırma yapılabilecek zaman periyodlarında yapılmıştır. Her iki bölgede arıların en çok bu bitkiyi ziyaret ettiği zaman aralığı saat 15:00 aynı zamanda her iki bölgede bu bitkide balözü akımının en yüksek olduğu zaman aralığı olarak kaydedilmiştir. Bu zaman aralığı aynı zamanda duran ve akan balözü seviyesindeki en farklı durumun ortaya çıktığı zamandır. Balözü seviyesi konusunda iki bölgede delikli torba kafesler ile kapalı ve açık çiçeklerde özellikle tozlayıcıların çok yoğun olduğu dönemlerde önemli farklılıklar bulunmuştur. Akan balözü ve duran balözü miktarları Midilli adasında Santa Cruz adasındakilerden daha düşük olarak tespit edilmiştir. Arı bitki birlikteliğini sağlayan arı çeşitleri ise Midilli adasında Santa Cruz adasındakilerden daha yüksek olarak tespit edilmiştir. İlginç olarak Midilli adasında bu gözlem periyodlarında bal arıları kaydedilmemiştir.

Kaynakça

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  • Amaya-Márquez, M., Hill, P. S. M., Barthell, J. F., Pham, L. L., Doty, D. R. & Wells, H. 2008. Learning and memory during foraging of the blue orchard bee, Osmia lignaria Say (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae). Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society, 81, 315-327.
  • Baker, H. G. 1965. Characteristics and mode of origin of weeds. Pages 147-172. In: Baker, H. G. & G. L. Stebbins (eds.), The Genetics of Colonizing Species, Academic Press, New York, NY.
  • Barthell, J. F., Randall, J. M., Thorp, R. W. & Wenner, A. M. 2001. Promotion of seed set in yellow star-thistle by honey bees: evidence of an invasive mutualism. Ecological Applications, 11, 1870-1883.
  • Barthell, J. F., Thorp, R. W., Frankie, G. W., Kim, JY. & Hranitz, J. M. 2003. Impacts of introduced solitary bees on natural and agricultural systems: the case of the leafcutting bee, Megachile apicalis Spinola (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae). Pages 151-162. In: Strickler, K., J. H. Cane & J. Brown (eds.), For Non-native Crops, Whence Pollinators of the Future? Thomas Say Publications in Entomology, Entomological Society of America, Lanham, MD.
  • Barthell, J. F., Thorp, R. W., Randall, J. M., Wenner, A. M., Reidenbaugh, R. T. & Rice, K. D. 2004. Positive and negative interactions with non-native insects affect yellow star-thistle reproduction on Santa Cruz Island, California. 52nd Annual Meeting of the Entomological Society of America. 17 November, 2004, Salt Lake City, UT. [ABSTRACT]
  • Barthell, J. F., Thorp, R. W., Wenner, A. M. & Randall, J. M. 2000. Yellow star-thistle, gumplant, and feral honey bees on Santa Cruz Island: a case of invaders assisting invaders. Pages 269-273. In: Browne, D. R., K. L. Mitchell & H. W. Chaney (eds.), Fifth California Islands Symposium, MBC Applied Environmental Sciences, Costa Mesa, CA.
  • Barthell, J. F., Thorp, R. W., Wenner, A. M., Randall, J. M. & Mitchell, D. S. 2005. Seed set in a non-native, self-compatible thistle on Santa Cruz Island: implications for the invasion of an island ecosystem. Pages 269-273. In: Garcelon, D. K. & C. A. Schwemm (eds.), Sixth California Islands Symposium, Institute for Wildlife Studies, Arcata, CA.
  • Barthell, J. F. & Wells, H. 2007. Honey bee globalization: why the world should not be flat. Business Review Journal of the St. Joseph’s College of Business Administration, 2, 51-63.
  • Bronstein, J. L. 1995. The plant-pollinator landscape. Pages 256-288. In: Hansoon, L., L. Fahrig & G. Merriam (eds.), Mosaic Landscapes and Ecological Processes, Chapman and Hall, London.
  • Brown, B. J., Mitchell, R. J. & Graham, S. A. 2002. Competition for pollination between an invasive species (purple loosestrife) and a native congener. Ecology, 83, 2328-2336.
  • Bruno, J. F., Stachowicz, J. J. & Bertness, M. D. 2003. Inclusion of facilitation into ecological theory. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 18, 119-125.
  • Butz Huryn, V. M. 1997. Ecological impacts of introduced honey bees. Quarterly Review of Biology, 72, 275-297.
  • Çakmak, I., Sanderson, C., Blocker, T. D., Pham, L. L., Checotah, S., Norman, A. A., HaraderPate, B. K., Reidenbaugh, R. T., Nentchev, P., Barthell, J. F. & Wells, H. 2009. Different Solutions by Bees to a Foraging Problem. Animal Behaviour, 77, 1273-1280.
  • Chittka, L. & Schürkens, S. 2001. Successful invasion of a floral market. Nature, 411, 653.
  • Dalaka, A. & Petanidou, T. 2006. The effects of grazing in the terraced agro-ecosystems of Lesvos Island (Greece). Pages 51-57. In: Papanastassis, V. P., Z. M. Parissi (eds.), Proceedings of the 5th Panhellenic Rangeland Congress, Heraclion of Crete, Range Science of Xerothermic Areas, Ηellenic Range and Pasture Society, Thessaloniki.
  • Foufopoulos, J. & Mayer, G. C. 2007. Turnover of passerine birds on islands in the Aegean Sea (Greece). Journal of Biogeography, 34, 1113- 1123.
  • Fritts, T. H. & Rodda, G. H. 1998. The role of introduced species in the degradation of island ecosystems: a case history of Guam. Annual Review of Ecology, and Systematics, 29, 113– 140.
  • Gerlach, J. D., Jr. & Rice, K. J. 2003. Testing life history correlates of invasiveness using congeneric plant species. Ecological Applications, 13, 167-179.
  • Ghazoul, J. 2002. Flowers at the front line of invasion? Ecological Entomology, 27, 638–640.
  • Gherini, J. 1997. Santa Cruz Island: A History of Conflict and Diversity. The Arthur Clark, Company, Spokane, WA.
  • Gherini, J. 2005. Radio Santa Cruz: a glimpse of island ranch life from 1951 to 1984. Pages 121- 130. In: Garcelon, D. K. & C. A. Schwemm (eds.), Sixth California Islands Symposium, Institute for Wildlife Studies, Arcata, CA.
  • Goulson, D. 2003. Effects of introduced bees on native ecosystems. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 34, 1-26.
  • Hendry, G. W. & Bellue, M. K 1936. An approach to southwestern agricultural history through adobe brick analysis. Pages 65-72. In: Symposium on Prehistoric Agriculture, University of New Mexico Bulletin Number 296, New Mexico University Press, Albuquerque, NM.
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  • Irwin, R. E., Adler, L. S., & Brody, A. K. 2004. The dual role of floral traits: pollinator attraction and plant defense. Ecology, 85, 1503-1511.
  • Junak, S., Ayers, T., Scott, R., Wilken, D. & Young, D. 1995. A Flora of Santa Cruz Island. Santa Barbara Botanic Garden, Santa Barbara, CA.
  • Kearns, C. A. & Inouye, D. W. 1993. Techniques for Pollination Biologists. University of Colorado Press, Niwot, CO.
  • Kearns, C. A., Inouye, D. W. & Waser, N. M. 1998. Endangered mutualisms: the conservation of plant-pollinator interactions. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 29, 83-112.
  • Lack, A. J. 1982. Competition of pollinators in the ecology of Centaurea scabiosa L. and Centaurea nigra L. New Phytologist, 91, 309- 320.
  • Maddox, D. M., Joley, D. B., Supkoff, D. M. & Mayfield, A. 1996. Pollination biology of yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis) in California. Canadian Journal of Botany, 74, 262-267.
  • Maddox, D. M. & Mayfield, A. 1985. Yellow starthistle infestations are on the increase. California Agriculture, 39, 10-12.
  • Marathianou, M., Kosmas, C., Gerontidis, S. & Detsis, V. 2000. Land-use evolution and degradation in Lesvos (Greece): a historical approach. Land Degradation and Development, 11, 63-73.
  • McIver, J., Thorp, R., & Erickson, K. 2009. Pollinators of the invasive plant yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis), in northeastern Oregon, USA. Weed and Biology Management, 9, 137-145.
  • Memmott, J., & Waser, N. M. 2002. Integration of alien plants into a native flower-pollinator visitation web. Proceedings of the Royal Society London B, 269, 2395-2399.
  • Michener, C. D. 2000. The Bees of the World. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MA.
  • Müller, A. & Bansac, N. 2004. A specialized pollenharvesting device in western palearctic bees of the genus Megachile (Hymenoptera, Apoidea, Megachilidae). Apidologie, 35, 329-337.
  • Olesen, J. M., Eskildsen, L. I. & Venkatasamy, S. 2002. Invasion networks on oceanic islands: importance of invader complexes and endemic super generalists. Diversity and Distributions, 8, 181-192.
  • Peat, J. & Goulson, D. 2005. Effects of experience and weather on foraging rate and pollen versus nectar collection in the bumblebee, Bombus terrestris. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 58, 152-156.
  • Pellet, F. C. 1976. American Honey Plants. Dadant and Sons, Hamilton, IL.
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Nectar Secretion and Bee Guild Characteristics of Yellow Star-Thistle on Santa Cruz Island and Lesvos: Where Have the Honey Bees Gone?

Yıl 2009, Cilt: 09 Sayı: 3, 109 - 121, 28.08.2009

Öz

We compared nectar secretion rates and bee guilds of yellow star-thistle, Centaurea solstitialis, on Santa Cruz Island (USA) and the Northeast Aegean Island of Lesvos (Greece). This plant species is non-native and highly invasive in the western USA but native to Eurasia (including Lesvos). “Nectar flow” was assessed by measuring nectar volumes in florets of flower heads covered with mesh bags (preventing visitation by bees); “nectar standing crop” data were taken from open (unbagged) flower heads to which all bees could gain access. We censused bees at C. solstitialis during comparable periods on both islands and determined the bee guild composition of the plant on Lesvos. Significant differences in nectar levels occurred between bagged and unbagged florets at each locale, especially during the period that pollinators were most common. Nectar flow and nectar standing crop volumes were lower on Lesvos than on Santa Cruz Island. The bee guild diversity at Lesvos was higher relative to Santa Cruz Islan

Kaynakça

  • Allen, K. B. (editor). 1996. Island of the cowboys. Santa Rosa Island. Occasional Paper No. 7. Santa Cruz Island Foundation, Santa Barbara, CA.
  • Amaya-Márquez, M., Hill, P. S. M., Barthell, J. F., Pham, L. L., Doty, D. R. & Wells, H. 2008. Learning and memory during foraging of the blue orchard bee, Osmia lignaria Say (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae). Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society, 81, 315-327.
  • Baker, H. G. 1965. Characteristics and mode of origin of weeds. Pages 147-172. In: Baker, H. G. & G. L. Stebbins (eds.), The Genetics of Colonizing Species, Academic Press, New York, NY.
  • Barthell, J. F., Randall, J. M., Thorp, R. W. & Wenner, A. M. 2001. Promotion of seed set in yellow star-thistle by honey bees: evidence of an invasive mutualism. Ecological Applications, 11, 1870-1883.
  • Barthell, J. F., Thorp, R. W., Frankie, G. W., Kim, JY. & Hranitz, J. M. 2003. Impacts of introduced solitary bees on natural and agricultural systems: the case of the leafcutting bee, Megachile apicalis Spinola (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae). Pages 151-162. In: Strickler, K., J. H. Cane & J. Brown (eds.), For Non-native Crops, Whence Pollinators of the Future? Thomas Say Publications in Entomology, Entomological Society of America, Lanham, MD.
  • Barthell, J. F., Thorp, R. W., Randall, J. M., Wenner, A. M., Reidenbaugh, R. T. & Rice, K. D. 2004. Positive and negative interactions with non-native insects affect yellow star-thistle reproduction on Santa Cruz Island, California. 52nd Annual Meeting of the Entomological Society of America. 17 November, 2004, Salt Lake City, UT. [ABSTRACT]
  • Barthell, J. F., Thorp, R. W., Wenner, A. M. & Randall, J. M. 2000. Yellow star-thistle, gumplant, and feral honey bees on Santa Cruz Island: a case of invaders assisting invaders. Pages 269-273. In: Browne, D. R., K. L. Mitchell & H. W. Chaney (eds.), Fifth California Islands Symposium, MBC Applied Environmental Sciences, Costa Mesa, CA.
  • Barthell, J. F., Thorp, R. W., Wenner, A. M., Randall, J. M. & Mitchell, D. S. 2005. Seed set in a non-native, self-compatible thistle on Santa Cruz Island: implications for the invasion of an island ecosystem. Pages 269-273. In: Garcelon, D. K. & C. A. Schwemm (eds.), Sixth California Islands Symposium, Institute for Wildlife Studies, Arcata, CA.
  • Barthell, J. F. & Wells, H. 2007. Honey bee globalization: why the world should not be flat. Business Review Journal of the St. Joseph’s College of Business Administration, 2, 51-63.
  • Bronstein, J. L. 1995. The plant-pollinator landscape. Pages 256-288. In: Hansoon, L., L. Fahrig & G. Merriam (eds.), Mosaic Landscapes and Ecological Processes, Chapman and Hall, London.
  • Brown, B. J., Mitchell, R. J. & Graham, S. A. 2002. Competition for pollination between an invasive species (purple loosestrife) and a native congener. Ecology, 83, 2328-2336.
  • Bruno, J. F., Stachowicz, J. J. & Bertness, M. D. 2003. Inclusion of facilitation into ecological theory. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 18, 119-125.
  • Butz Huryn, V. M. 1997. Ecological impacts of introduced honey bees. Quarterly Review of Biology, 72, 275-297.
  • Çakmak, I., Sanderson, C., Blocker, T. D., Pham, L. L., Checotah, S., Norman, A. A., HaraderPate, B. K., Reidenbaugh, R. T., Nentchev, P., Barthell, J. F. & Wells, H. 2009. Different Solutions by Bees to a Foraging Problem. Animal Behaviour, 77, 1273-1280.
  • Chittka, L. & Schürkens, S. 2001. Successful invasion of a floral market. Nature, 411, 653.
  • Dalaka, A. & Petanidou, T. 2006. The effects of grazing in the terraced agro-ecosystems of Lesvos Island (Greece). Pages 51-57. In: Papanastassis, V. P., Z. M. Parissi (eds.), Proceedings of the 5th Panhellenic Rangeland Congress, Heraclion of Crete, Range Science of Xerothermic Areas, Ηellenic Range and Pasture Society, Thessaloniki.
  • Foufopoulos, J. & Mayer, G. C. 2007. Turnover of passerine birds on islands in the Aegean Sea (Greece). Journal of Biogeography, 34, 1113- 1123.
  • Fritts, T. H. & Rodda, G. H. 1998. The role of introduced species in the degradation of island ecosystems: a case history of Guam. Annual Review of Ecology, and Systematics, 29, 113– 140.
  • Gerlach, J. D., Jr. & Rice, K. J. 2003. Testing life history correlates of invasiveness using congeneric plant species. Ecological Applications, 13, 167-179.
  • Ghazoul, J. 2002. Flowers at the front line of invasion? Ecological Entomology, 27, 638–640.
  • Gherini, J. 1997. Santa Cruz Island: A History of Conflict and Diversity. The Arthur Clark, Company, Spokane, WA.
  • Gherini, J. 2005. Radio Santa Cruz: a glimpse of island ranch life from 1951 to 1984. Pages 121- 130. In: Garcelon, D. K. & C. A. Schwemm (eds.), Sixth California Islands Symposium, Institute for Wildlife Studies, Arcata, CA.
  • Goulson, D. 2003. Effects of introduced bees on native ecosystems. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 34, 1-26.
  • Hendry, G. W. & Bellue, M. K 1936. An approach to southwestern agricultural history through adobe brick analysis. Pages 65-72. In: Symposium on Prehistoric Agriculture, University of New Mexico Bulletin Number 296, New Mexico University Press, Albuquerque, NM.
  • ickman, J. C. (editor). 1993. The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA.
  • Irwin, R. E., Adler, L. S., & Brody, A. K. 2004. The dual role of floral traits: pollinator attraction and plant defense. Ecology, 85, 1503-1511.
  • Junak, S., Ayers, T., Scott, R., Wilken, D. & Young, D. 1995. A Flora of Santa Cruz Island. Santa Barbara Botanic Garden, Santa Barbara, CA.
  • Kearns, C. A. & Inouye, D. W. 1993. Techniques for Pollination Biologists. University of Colorado Press, Niwot, CO.
  • Kearns, C. A., Inouye, D. W. & Waser, N. M. 1998. Endangered mutualisms: the conservation of plant-pollinator interactions. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 29, 83-112.
  • Lack, A. J. 1982. Competition of pollinators in the ecology of Centaurea scabiosa L. and Centaurea nigra L. New Phytologist, 91, 309- 320.
  • Maddox, D. M., Joley, D. B., Supkoff, D. M. & Mayfield, A. 1996. Pollination biology of yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis) in California. Canadian Journal of Botany, 74, 262-267.
  • Maddox, D. M. & Mayfield, A. 1985. Yellow starthistle infestations are on the increase. California Agriculture, 39, 10-12.
  • Marathianou, M., Kosmas, C., Gerontidis, S. & Detsis, V. 2000. Land-use evolution and degradation in Lesvos (Greece): a historical approach. Land Degradation and Development, 11, 63-73.
  • McIver, J., Thorp, R., & Erickson, K. 2009. Pollinators of the invasive plant yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis), in northeastern Oregon, USA. Weed and Biology Management, 9, 137-145.
  • Memmott, J., & Waser, N. M. 2002. Integration of alien plants into a native flower-pollinator visitation web. Proceedings of the Royal Society London B, 269, 2395-2399.
  • Michener, C. D. 2000. The Bees of the World. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MA.
  • Müller, A. & Bansac, N. 2004. A specialized pollenharvesting device in western palearctic bees of the genus Megachile (Hymenoptera, Apoidea, Megachilidae). Apidologie, 35, 329-337.
  • Olesen, J. M., Eskildsen, L. I. & Venkatasamy, S. 2002. Invasion networks on oceanic islands: importance of invader complexes and endemic super generalists. Diversity and Distributions, 8, 181-192.
  • Peat, J. & Goulson, D. 2005. Effects of experience and weather on foraging rate and pollen versus nectar collection in the bumblebee, Bombus terrestris. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 58, 152-156.
  • Pellet, F. C. 1976. American Honey Plants. Dadant and Sons, Hamilton, IL.
  • Petanidou T. & Lamborn, E. 2005. A land for flowers and bees: studying pollination ecology in Mediterranean communities. Plant Biosystems, 139, 279-294.
  • Petanidou T. & Smets, E. 1996. Does temperature stress induce nectar secretion in Mediterranean plants? New Phytologist, 133, 513-518.
  • Pitcairn, M. J., Schoenig, S., Yacoub, R. & Gendron, J. 2006. Yellow starthistle continues its spread in California. California Agriculture, 60, 83-90.
  • Potts, S. G., Petanidou, T., Roberts, S., O‟Toole, C., Hulbert, A. & Willmer, P. 2006. Plant– pollinator biodiversity and pollination services in a complex Mediterranean landscape. Biological Conservation, 129, 519-529.
  • Proctor, M., Yeo, P. & Lack, A. 1996. The Natural History of Pollination. Timber Press, Inc., Portland, OR.
  • Richardson, D. M., Allsopp, N., D‟Antonio, C. M., Milton, S. J. & Rejmánek, M. 2000. Plant invasions-the role of mutualisms. Biological Review, 75, 65-93.
  • Roubik, D. W. 1983. Experimental community studies: time-series tests of competition between African and neotropical bees, Ecology, 64, 971-978.
  • Rust, R., Menke, A. & Miller, D. 1985. A biogeographic comparison of the bees, sphecid wasps and mealybugs of the California Channel Islands (Hymenoptera, Homoptera). Pages 29-59. In: Menke, A. S. & D. R. Miller (eds.), Entomology of the Channel Islands: Proceedings of the First Symposium, Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, Santa Barbara, CA.
  • Sammataro, D., Gerson, U. & Needham, G. R. 2000. Parasitic mites of honey bees: life history, implications and impact. Annual Review of Entomology, 45, 517-546.
  • Schaffer, W. M., Jensen, D. B., Hobbs, D. E., Gurevitch, J., Todd, J. R. & Valentine Schaffer, M. 1979. Competition, foraging energetics, and the cost of sociality in three species of bees. Ecology, 60, 976-987.
  • Simberloff, D. & Von Holle, B. 1999. Positive interactions of nonindigenous species: invasional meltdown? Biological Invasions, 1, 21-32.
  • Stebbins, G. L. 1957. Self fertilisation and population variability in the higher plants. American Naturalist, 91, 337–354.
  • Stephen, W. P. 2003. Solitary bees in North America: a perspective. Pages 41-66. In: Strickler, K., J. H. Cane & J. Brown (eds.), For non-native crops, whence pollinators of the future? Thomas Say Publications in Entomology, Entomological Society of America, Lanham, MD.
  • Sun, M. & Ritland, K. 1997. Mating system of yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis), a successful colonizer in North America. Heredity, 46, 20-23.
  • Thorp, R. W., Wenner, A. M. & Barthell, J. F. 1994. Flowers visited by honey bees and native bees on Santa Cruz Island. Pages. 259-286. In: Halverson, L. & G. J. Maender (eds.), Fourth California Islands Symposium: Update on the Status of Resources, Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, Santa Barbara, CA.
  • Thorp, R. W., Wenner, A. M. & Barthell, J. F. 2000. Pollen and nectar resource overlap among bees on Santa Cruz Island. Pages 261-268. In: Browne, D. R., K. L. Mitchell & H. W. Chaney (eds.), Fifth California Islands Symposium, MBC Applied Environmental Sciences, Costa Mesa, CA.
  • Tipton, J. A. 2006. The animal world: the case of kobios and phucis. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 49, 369-383.
  • Uygur, S., Smith, L., Uygur, F. N., Cristofaro, M. & Balciunas, J. 2004. Population densities of yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis) in Turkey. Weed Science, 52, 746-753.
  • Wenner, A. M. & Thorp, R. W. 1993. The honey bees of Santa Cruz Island. Bee Culture, 121, 272-275.
  • Wenner, A. M. & Thorp, R. W. 1994. Removal of feral honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies from Santa Cruz Island. Pages 513-522. In: Halverson, W. L. & G. J. Meander (eds.), Fourth California Islands Symposium: Update on the Status of Resources, Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History, Santa Barbara, CA.
  • Wenner, A. M., Thorp, R. W. & Barthell, J. F. 2000. Removal of European honey bees from the Santa Cruz Island ecosystem. Pages 256-260. In: Browne, D. R., K. L. Mitchell & H. W. Chaney (eds.). Fifth California Islands Symposium, MBC Applied Environmental Sciences, Costa Mesa, CA.
Toplam 61 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Yapısal Biyoloji
Bölüm Araştırma Makaleleri
Yazarlar

John F. Barthell Bu kişi benim

Meredith L. Clement Bu kişi benim

Daniel S. Song Bu kişi benim

Amy N. Savıtskı Bu kişi benim

John M. Hranıtz Bu kişi benim

Theodora Petanidou Robbin W. Thorp Bu kişi benim

Adrian M. Wenner Bu kişi benim

Terry L. Grıswold Bu kişi benim

Harrington Wells Bu kişi benim

Yayımlanma Tarihi 28 Ağustos 2009
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2009 Cilt: 09 Sayı: 3

Kaynak Göster

Vancouver Barthell JF, Clement ML, Song DS, Savıtskı AN, Hranıtz JM, Thorp TPRW, Wenner AM, Grıswold TL, Wells H. Nectar Secretion and Bee Guild Characteristics of Yellow Star-Thistle on Santa Cruz Island and Lesvos: Where Have the Honey Bees Gone?. U.Arı D.-U.Bee J. 2009;09(3):109-21.

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