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Balarısı Çiçek Bağımlılığı

Yıl 2005, Cilt: 05 Sayı: 1, 32 - 41, 26.02.2005

Öz

Aristo zamanından beri arıların çiçekleri ziyaret ederken belli bir bitki türüne gösterdiği bağımlılık bilinmektedir. Aslında bu çiçek bağımlılığı peş peşe ziyaret edilen çiçek grupları arasında birkaç çiçek ile sınırlı değildir. Polen yükü ile kovana dönen yayılmacı arının getirdiği polen yükünün ancak %6’sı birden fazla bitki türünden toplanmıştır (Ör. Free 1963; Moezel et al. 1987). Tarım literatüründe arıların çiçek bağımlılığı “ürün tutkusu” veya ilişikliği olarak geçer. Biz burada balarılarının bilinen çevrede birçok çiçek varken tek tip çiçeği neden seçtiğini açıklamaya çalışıyoruz. Gerçi arıların çiçek bağımlılığı efsane gibi bilinmesine rağmen (Aristotle 330 B.C.; Virgil 30 B.C.; Butler 1609; Benett 1883; Maeterlink 1901; Ribbands 1953; Hill et al. 1997) bazen bu çiçek bağımlılığı görülmez. Bu, balarılarında çiçek bağımlılığının neden yaygın şekilde olduğu düşünüldüğü zaman önemlidir

Kaynakça

  • Abramson (1994). A Primer of Invertebrate Learning: The Behavioral Perspective. American Psycholgical Association, Washington, D.C.
  • Aristotle (330 B.C.) Historia Animalium. As translated (pp. 270) in: A.M. Wenner & P.H. Wells (1990) Anatomy of a Controversy. Columbia University Press, New York, NY.
  • Banschbach, V.S. & K.D. Waddington (1994). Risksensitive foraging in honeybees: no consensus among individuals and no effect of colony honey stores. Animal Behaviour 47: 933-941.
  • Benett, A.W. (1883). On the flower constancy of insects in their visits to flowers. Journal of The Linnean Society of Zoology 17: 175-185.
  • Bitterman, M.E., R. Menzel, A. Fietz & S. Schafer. (1983). Classical conditioning of proboscis extension in honeybees (Apis mellifera). Journal of Comparative Psychology 97:107-119.
  • Boren, R.B., R.L. Parker & E.L. Sorensen (1962). Foraging behaviour of honey bees on selected alfalfa clones. Crop Science 2: 185-188.
  • Brown, J.S. (1992). Patch use under predation risk: I. Models and predictions. Annales Zoologici Fennici 29: 301-309.
  • Butler, C. (1609). The Feminine Monarchie. Reprinted: Da Capo Press (1969). New York. U.S.A.
  • Cakmak, I. & H. Wells (2001). Reward Frequency: Effects on flower choices made by different honey bee subspecies endemic to Turkey. Turkish Journal of Zoology 25: 169-176.
  • Cakmak, I. & H. Wells (1995). Honey bee forager individual constancy: innate or learned. Bee Science 3: 165-173.
  • Cakmak, I. & H. Wells (1996). Flower color, nectar reward, and flower fidelity of the Caucasus honey bee (Apis mellifera caucasia). Turkish Journal of Zoology 20: 389-396.
  • Cakmak, I., P. Cook, J. Hollis, N. Shah, D. Huntley, D. van Valkenburg & H. Wells (1999). Africanized honey bee response to differences in reward frequency. Journal of Apicultural Research 38: 125-136.
  • Cartar, R.V. & L.M. Dill (1991). Costs of energy shortfall for bumble bee colonies: predation, social parasitism, and brood development. The Canadian Entomologist 123: 283-293.
  • Chittka, L. (1992). The colour hexagon: a chromaticity diagram based on photoreceptor excitations as a generalized representation of colour opponency. Journal of Comparative Physiology, A 170: 533-543.
  • Chittka, L. & R. Menzel (1992). The evolutionary adaptation of flower colors and the insect pollinators' color vision. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 171: 171-181.
  • Chittka, L. & J.D. Thomson (1997) Sensorimotor learning and its relevance for task specialization in bumble bees. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 41: 385-398
  • Clements, F.E. & F.L. Long (1923). Experimental Pollination: an Outline of the Ecology of Flowers and Insects. Carnegie, Washington, D.C.
  • Currie, R.W., S.C. Jay & D. Wright (1990). The effects of honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) and leafcutter bees (Megachile rotundata F.) on outcrossing between different cultivars of beans (Vicia faba L.) in caged plots. Journal of Apicultural Research 29: 68-74.
  • Darwin, C (1876). The Effects of Cross- and Selffertilization in the Animal Kingdom. London, Murray.
  • De Jong, D.D. (1990). Insects: Hymenoptera (Ants, wasps, and bees). In: Honeybee pests, predators and diseases. Second ed. (Morse, R.A. and R. Novogrodzki, eds.), pp. 135-176. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
  • Evans, H.E. & K.M. O’Neill (1988). The Natural History and Behavior of the North American Beewolves. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.
  • Faulkner, G.J. (1971). The behaviour of honey bees (Apis mellifera) on flowering Brussels sprout inbreds in production of F1 hybrid seed. Horticultural Research 11: 60-62.
  • Faulkner, G.J. (1974). Factors affecting field-scale production of seed of F1 hybrid Brussels sprout. Annals of Applied Biology 77: 181-190.
  • Free, J.B. & I.H. Williams (1973). The pollination of hybrid kale (Brassica oleraceae L.). Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 81: 557-559.
  • Free, J.B. & I.H. Williams (1983). Foraging behavior of honeybees and bumblebees on Brussels sprout grown to produce hybrid seed. Journal of Agricultural Research 22: 94-97.
  • Free, J.B. (1963). The flower constancy of honey bees. Journal of Animal Ecology 32: 119-132.
  • Fretwell, S.D. & H.L. Lucas (1970) On territorial behavior and other factors influencing habitat distribution in birds. Acta Biotheoretica 19: 1636.
  • Frisch, K. von (1937). The language of bees. Scientific Processes 32: 29-37.
  • Frisch, K. von (1943). Versuche uber die Lenkung des Bienenfluges durch Dufstoffe. Naturwissenschaften 31: 445-460.
  • Frisch, K. von (1950) Bees: Their Vision, Chemical Senses, and Language. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.
  • Fulop, A. & R. Menzel (2000). Risk indifferent foraging behavior in honeybees. Animal Behaviour 60:657-666.
  • Gilliam, J.F. & D.F. Fraser (1987). Habitat selection under predation hazard: a test of a model with foraging minnows. Ecology 68: 1856-1862.
  • Giurfa, M., J. Nunez, L. Chittka & R.Menzel (1995). Color preferences of flower naïve honey bees. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 177: 247259.
  • Goulson, D. & N.P. Wright. (1998). Flower constancy in the hoverflies Episyrphus balteatus (Degeer) and Syrphus ribesii (L.) (Syrphidae). Behavioral Ecology 9: 213-219.
  • Goulson, D., J.C. Stout & S.A. Hawson (1997). Can flower constancy in nectaring butterflies be explained by Darwin's interference hypothesis? Oecologia 112: 225-231.
  • Grant, V. (1949). Pollination systems as isolating mechanisms in angiosperms. Evolution 3: 8197.
  • Grant, V. (1950). The flower constancy of bees. Botanical Review 16: 379-398.
  • Greene, C.H. (1986). Patterns of prey selection: implications of predator foraging tactics. American Naturalist 128: 824-839.
  • Greggers, U. & R. Menzel (1993). Memory dynamics and foraging strategies of honey bees. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 32: 1729.
  • Gross, C.L. (1992). Floral traits and pollinator constancy: foraging by native bees among three sympatric legumes. Australian Journal of Ecology 17: 67-74.
  • Hanson, C.H., H.O. Graumann, L.J. Elling, J.W. Dudley, H.L. Carnahan, W.R. Kehr, R.L. Davis, F.I. Frosheiser & A.W. Novin (1964). Performance of two-clone crosses in alfalfa and an unanticipated self-pollination problem. Technical Bulletin No. 1300, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture.
  • Harder, L.D. & L.A. Real (1987). Why are bumble bees risk averse? Ecology 68: 1104-1108.
  • Heinrich, B. (1993). The Hot Blooded Insects: Strategies and Mechanisms of Thermoregulation. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
  • Heinrich, B. (1979). Majoring and minoring by foraging bumble bees, Bombus vagans: an experimental analysis. Ecology 60: 245-255.
  • Heinrich, B., P.R. Mudge & P.G. Deringis (1977). Laboratory analysis of flower constancy in foraging bumblebees: Bombus ternarius and B. terricola. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 2: 247-265.
  • Hill, P.S., P.H. Wells & H.Wells (1997). Spontaneous flower constancy and learning in honey bees as a function of color. Animal Behaviour 54: 615627.
  • Hill, P.S.M, J. Hollis & H.Wells (2001). Foraging decisions in nectarivores: unexpected interactions between flower constancy and energetic rewards. Animal Behaviour 62: 729– 37.
  • Johansen, A.G. & D.F. Mayer (1987). Observations on honeybee foraging behavior. American Bee Journal 127: 194-196.
  • Johnson, D.L. (1967). Communication among honey bees with field experience. Animal Behaviour 15: 487-492.
  • Laverty, T.M. (1994). Costs to bumble bees of switching plant species. Canadian Journal of Zoology 72: 43-47.
  • Lewis, A.C. (1986). Memory constraints and flower choice in Pieris rapae. Science 232: 863-865.
  • Maeterlink, M. (1901). La Vie des Abeilles. Bibliotheque-Charpentier, Fasquelle Editeurs.
  • Marden, J.H. & K.D. Waddington (1981). Floral choices by honey bees in relation to the relative distances to flowers. Physiological Entomology 6: 431-435.
  • Menzel, R. (2001). Behavioral and neural mechanisms of learning and memory as determinants of flower constancy. In: Chittka, L & Thomson, J.D (eds.) Cognitive Ecology of Pollination, Animal Behavior and Floral Evolution, pp 21-40.
  • Moezel, P.G., J.C. van der Delfs, J.S. Pate, W.A. Loneragen & D.T. Bell (1987) Pollen collection by honey bees in shrublands of the northern sandplains of Western Australia. Journal of Apicultural Research 26: 224-232.
  • Nonacs, P. (1990) Death in the distance: mortality risk as information for foraging ants. Behaviour 112: 24-35.
  • Nonacs, P. & L.M. Dill (1988). Foraging response of the ant Lasius pallitarsis to food sources with associated mortality risk. Insectes Sociaux 35: 293-303.
  • Nonacs, P. & L.M. Dill (1990). Mortality risk vs. food quality trade off in a common currency: ant patch preference. Ecology 71:1886-1892.
  • Ozbek, H. (1982) Turkiye icin onemli bir balarisi (Apis mellifera L.) avcibocegi Philanthus triangulum abdelkader Lep. (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae). Ataturk Universitesi Fen Fakultesi Dergisi 13: 47-54.
  • Real, L.A. (1991). Animal choice behavior and the evolution of cognitive architecture. Science 253: 980-986.
  • Real, L.A. (1981). Uncertainty in plant-pollinator interaction: the foraging behavior of bees and wasps on artificial flowers. Ecology 62: 20-26.
  • Reinhard, J., M. Srinivasan & S. Zhang (2004). Scenttriggered navigation in honeybees. Nature 427: 411.
  • Ribbands, R. (1953). The Behavior and Social Life of Honeybees. Bee Research Association Limited, London, UK.
  • Sanderson, C.E, B.S. Orozco, P.S.M. Hill & H. Wells. (2004) Honeybee (Apis mellifera ligustica) response to differences in handling time, rewards, and flower colours. Journal of Animal Ecology, submitted.
  • Schmid-Hempel, P. (1984). The importance of handling time for the flight directionality in bees. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 15: 303309.
  • Shafir, S. (1994). Intransitivity of preferences in honey bees: support for 'comparative' evaluation of foraging options. Animal Behaviour 48: 55-67.
  • Shafir, S., D.G. Wiegmann, B.H. Smith & L.A. Real (1999). Risk sensitive foraging: choice behaviour of honey bees in response to variability in volume of reward. Animal Behaviour 57: 1055-1061.
  • Sharma, O.P. & D. Raj (1988). Ecological studies on predatory wasps attacking Italian honeybee, Apis mellifera, in Kangra shivaliks. Indian Journal of Ecology 15: 168-171.
  • Stephens, D.W. & J.R. Krebs (1986). Foraging Theory. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
  • Virgil (30 B.C.) Georgics IV. Reprinted: Cambridge University Press (1988). Cambridge, U.K.
  • Waddington, K.D. & L.R. Holden (1979). Optimal foraging: on flower selection by bees. American Naturalist 127: 179-196.
  • Waddington, K.D. & N. Gottlieb (1990). Actual vs. perceived profitability: a study of floral choice of honey bees. Journal of Insect Behavior 3: 429-441.
  • Waser, N.M. (1983). The adaptive nature of floral traits: ideas and evidence, pp 241-281. In: L. Real (ed), Pollination Biology. Orlando, Academic Press.
  • Waser, N.M. & L.A. Real (1979). Effects of mutualism between sequentially flowering plant species. Nature 281: 670-672.
  • Wells, H. & R.R.S. Rathore (1994). Foraging ecology of the Asian hive bee, Apis cerana indica, within artificial flower patches. Journal of Apicultural Research 33: 219-230.
  • Wells, H. & R.R.S. Rathore (1994b). Discriminant conditioning of foragers in the Asian honey bees Apis cerana and Apis dorsata. Ecological Entomology 20: 374-379.
  • Wells, H., & P.H. Wells (1983). Honey bee foraging ecology: optimal diet, minimal uncertainty or individual constancy. Journal of Animal Ecology 52: 829-836.
  • Wells, H., & P.H. Wells (1986). Optimal diet, minimal uncertainty and individual constancy in the foraging of honey bees. Journal of Animal Ecology 55: 881-891.
  • Wells, H., P.S. Hill & P.H. Wells (1992). Nectivore foraging ecology: rewards differing in sugar types. Ecological Entomology 17: 280-288.W
  • Wells, P.H., & H. Wells (1984). Can honey bees change foraging patterns? Ecological Entomology 9: 467-473.
  • Wells, P.H., & H. Wells (1986b). Ethological Isolation of plants 2. Odor selection by honeybees. Journal of Apicultural Research 24: 86-92.
  • Wenner, A.M. & D.L. Johnson (1966). Simple conditioning in honeybees. Animal Behaviour 14: 149-155.
  • Wenner, A.M. & P.H. Wells (1990). Anatomy of a Controversy. Columbia University Press, New York, U.S.A.

The Flower Fıdelıty Of The Honeybee

Yıl 2005, Cilt: 05 Sayı: 1, 32 - 41, 26.02.2005

Öz

 Since the time of Aristotle, it has been observed that honeybees show remarkable fidelity to a plant species when visiting a patch of flowers to forage. This pollinator flower constancy, in fact, is not limited to a few flowers in a set of sequentially visited flowers. A mere 6% of the pollen in a pollenload returned to the hive by a forger is from more than one plant species (e.g. Free 1963; Moezel et al. 1987). In the agricultural literature this flower fidelity of honeybee foragers became known as ‘crop attachment’. Here, we review what is known about why a honeybee typically chooses to forage from a single flower type despite the wide range of options available to it. Although the flower fidelity of honeybees is legendary (Aristotle 330 B.C.; Virgil 30 B.C.; Butler 1609; Benett 1883; Maeterlink 1901; Ribbands 1953; Hill et al. 1997), flower constancy at times is not observed, and this is important when considering why flower fidelity is so prevalent among honeybee foragers.

Kaynakça

  • Abramson (1994). A Primer of Invertebrate Learning: The Behavioral Perspective. American Psycholgical Association, Washington, D.C.
  • Aristotle (330 B.C.) Historia Animalium. As translated (pp. 270) in: A.M. Wenner & P.H. Wells (1990) Anatomy of a Controversy. Columbia University Press, New York, NY.
  • Banschbach, V.S. & K.D. Waddington (1994). Risksensitive foraging in honeybees: no consensus among individuals and no effect of colony honey stores. Animal Behaviour 47: 933-941.
  • Benett, A.W. (1883). On the flower constancy of insects in their visits to flowers. Journal of The Linnean Society of Zoology 17: 175-185.
  • Bitterman, M.E., R. Menzel, A. Fietz & S. Schafer. (1983). Classical conditioning of proboscis extension in honeybees (Apis mellifera). Journal of Comparative Psychology 97:107-119.
  • Boren, R.B., R.L. Parker & E.L. Sorensen (1962). Foraging behaviour of honey bees on selected alfalfa clones. Crop Science 2: 185-188.
  • Brown, J.S. (1992). Patch use under predation risk: I. Models and predictions. Annales Zoologici Fennici 29: 301-309.
  • Butler, C. (1609). The Feminine Monarchie. Reprinted: Da Capo Press (1969). New York. U.S.A.
  • Cakmak, I. & H. Wells (2001). Reward Frequency: Effects on flower choices made by different honey bee subspecies endemic to Turkey. Turkish Journal of Zoology 25: 169-176.
  • Cakmak, I. & H. Wells (1995). Honey bee forager individual constancy: innate or learned. Bee Science 3: 165-173.
  • Cakmak, I. & H. Wells (1996). Flower color, nectar reward, and flower fidelity of the Caucasus honey bee (Apis mellifera caucasia). Turkish Journal of Zoology 20: 389-396.
  • Cakmak, I., P. Cook, J. Hollis, N. Shah, D. Huntley, D. van Valkenburg & H. Wells (1999). Africanized honey bee response to differences in reward frequency. Journal of Apicultural Research 38: 125-136.
  • Cartar, R.V. & L.M. Dill (1991). Costs of energy shortfall for bumble bee colonies: predation, social parasitism, and brood development. The Canadian Entomologist 123: 283-293.
  • Chittka, L. (1992). The colour hexagon: a chromaticity diagram based on photoreceptor excitations as a generalized representation of colour opponency. Journal of Comparative Physiology, A 170: 533-543.
  • Chittka, L. & R. Menzel (1992). The evolutionary adaptation of flower colors and the insect pollinators' color vision. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 171: 171-181.
  • Chittka, L. & J.D. Thomson (1997) Sensorimotor learning and its relevance for task specialization in bumble bees. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 41: 385-398
  • Clements, F.E. & F.L. Long (1923). Experimental Pollination: an Outline of the Ecology of Flowers and Insects. Carnegie, Washington, D.C.
  • Currie, R.W., S.C. Jay & D. Wright (1990). The effects of honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) and leafcutter bees (Megachile rotundata F.) on outcrossing between different cultivars of beans (Vicia faba L.) in caged plots. Journal of Apicultural Research 29: 68-74.
  • Darwin, C (1876). The Effects of Cross- and Selffertilization in the Animal Kingdom. London, Murray.
  • De Jong, D.D. (1990). Insects: Hymenoptera (Ants, wasps, and bees). In: Honeybee pests, predators and diseases. Second ed. (Morse, R.A. and R. Novogrodzki, eds.), pp. 135-176. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
  • Evans, H.E. & K.M. O’Neill (1988). The Natural History and Behavior of the North American Beewolves. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.
  • Faulkner, G.J. (1971). The behaviour of honey bees (Apis mellifera) on flowering Brussels sprout inbreds in production of F1 hybrid seed. Horticultural Research 11: 60-62.
  • Faulkner, G.J. (1974). Factors affecting field-scale production of seed of F1 hybrid Brussels sprout. Annals of Applied Biology 77: 181-190.
  • Free, J.B. & I.H. Williams (1973). The pollination of hybrid kale (Brassica oleraceae L.). Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 81: 557-559.
  • Free, J.B. & I.H. Williams (1983). Foraging behavior of honeybees and bumblebees on Brussels sprout grown to produce hybrid seed. Journal of Agricultural Research 22: 94-97.
  • Free, J.B. (1963). The flower constancy of honey bees. Journal of Animal Ecology 32: 119-132.
  • Fretwell, S.D. & H.L. Lucas (1970) On territorial behavior and other factors influencing habitat distribution in birds. Acta Biotheoretica 19: 1636.
  • Frisch, K. von (1937). The language of bees. Scientific Processes 32: 29-37.
  • Frisch, K. von (1943). Versuche uber die Lenkung des Bienenfluges durch Dufstoffe. Naturwissenschaften 31: 445-460.
  • Frisch, K. von (1950) Bees: Their Vision, Chemical Senses, and Language. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.
  • Fulop, A. & R. Menzel (2000). Risk indifferent foraging behavior in honeybees. Animal Behaviour 60:657-666.
  • Gilliam, J.F. & D.F. Fraser (1987). Habitat selection under predation hazard: a test of a model with foraging minnows. Ecology 68: 1856-1862.
  • Giurfa, M., J. Nunez, L. Chittka & R.Menzel (1995). Color preferences of flower naïve honey bees. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 177: 247259.
  • Goulson, D. & N.P. Wright. (1998). Flower constancy in the hoverflies Episyrphus balteatus (Degeer) and Syrphus ribesii (L.) (Syrphidae). Behavioral Ecology 9: 213-219.
  • Goulson, D., J.C. Stout & S.A. Hawson (1997). Can flower constancy in nectaring butterflies be explained by Darwin's interference hypothesis? Oecologia 112: 225-231.
  • Grant, V. (1949). Pollination systems as isolating mechanisms in angiosperms. Evolution 3: 8197.
  • Grant, V. (1950). The flower constancy of bees. Botanical Review 16: 379-398.
  • Greene, C.H. (1986). Patterns of prey selection: implications of predator foraging tactics. American Naturalist 128: 824-839.
  • Greggers, U. & R. Menzel (1993). Memory dynamics and foraging strategies of honey bees. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 32: 1729.
  • Gross, C.L. (1992). Floral traits and pollinator constancy: foraging by native bees among three sympatric legumes. Australian Journal of Ecology 17: 67-74.
  • Hanson, C.H., H.O. Graumann, L.J. Elling, J.W. Dudley, H.L. Carnahan, W.R. Kehr, R.L. Davis, F.I. Frosheiser & A.W. Novin (1964). Performance of two-clone crosses in alfalfa and an unanticipated self-pollination problem. Technical Bulletin No. 1300, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture.
  • Harder, L.D. & L.A. Real (1987). Why are bumble bees risk averse? Ecology 68: 1104-1108.
  • Heinrich, B. (1993). The Hot Blooded Insects: Strategies and Mechanisms of Thermoregulation. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
  • Heinrich, B. (1979). Majoring and minoring by foraging bumble bees, Bombus vagans: an experimental analysis. Ecology 60: 245-255.
  • Heinrich, B., P.R. Mudge & P.G. Deringis (1977). Laboratory analysis of flower constancy in foraging bumblebees: Bombus ternarius and B. terricola. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 2: 247-265.
  • Hill, P.S., P.H. Wells & H.Wells (1997). Spontaneous flower constancy and learning in honey bees as a function of color. Animal Behaviour 54: 615627.
  • Hill, P.S.M, J. Hollis & H.Wells (2001). Foraging decisions in nectarivores: unexpected interactions between flower constancy and energetic rewards. Animal Behaviour 62: 729– 37.
  • Johansen, A.G. & D.F. Mayer (1987). Observations on honeybee foraging behavior. American Bee Journal 127: 194-196.
  • Johnson, D.L. (1967). Communication among honey bees with field experience. Animal Behaviour 15: 487-492.
  • Laverty, T.M. (1994). Costs to bumble bees of switching plant species. Canadian Journal of Zoology 72: 43-47.
  • Lewis, A.C. (1986). Memory constraints and flower choice in Pieris rapae. Science 232: 863-865.
  • Maeterlink, M. (1901). La Vie des Abeilles. Bibliotheque-Charpentier, Fasquelle Editeurs.
  • Marden, J.H. & K.D. Waddington (1981). Floral choices by honey bees in relation to the relative distances to flowers. Physiological Entomology 6: 431-435.
  • Menzel, R. (2001). Behavioral and neural mechanisms of learning and memory as determinants of flower constancy. In: Chittka, L & Thomson, J.D (eds.) Cognitive Ecology of Pollination, Animal Behavior and Floral Evolution, pp 21-40.
  • Moezel, P.G., J.C. van der Delfs, J.S. Pate, W.A. Loneragen & D.T. Bell (1987) Pollen collection by honey bees in shrublands of the northern sandplains of Western Australia. Journal of Apicultural Research 26: 224-232.
  • Nonacs, P. (1990) Death in the distance: mortality risk as information for foraging ants. Behaviour 112: 24-35.
  • Nonacs, P. & L.M. Dill (1988). Foraging response of the ant Lasius pallitarsis to food sources with associated mortality risk. Insectes Sociaux 35: 293-303.
  • Nonacs, P. & L.M. Dill (1990). Mortality risk vs. food quality trade off in a common currency: ant patch preference. Ecology 71:1886-1892.
  • Ozbek, H. (1982) Turkiye icin onemli bir balarisi (Apis mellifera L.) avcibocegi Philanthus triangulum abdelkader Lep. (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae). Ataturk Universitesi Fen Fakultesi Dergisi 13: 47-54.
  • Real, L.A. (1991). Animal choice behavior and the evolution of cognitive architecture. Science 253: 980-986.
  • Real, L.A. (1981). Uncertainty in plant-pollinator interaction: the foraging behavior of bees and wasps on artificial flowers. Ecology 62: 20-26.
  • Reinhard, J., M. Srinivasan & S. Zhang (2004). Scenttriggered navigation in honeybees. Nature 427: 411.
  • Ribbands, R. (1953). The Behavior and Social Life of Honeybees. Bee Research Association Limited, London, UK.
  • Sanderson, C.E, B.S. Orozco, P.S.M. Hill & H. Wells. (2004) Honeybee (Apis mellifera ligustica) response to differences in handling time, rewards, and flower colours. Journal of Animal Ecology, submitted.
  • Schmid-Hempel, P. (1984). The importance of handling time for the flight directionality in bees. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 15: 303309.
  • Shafir, S. (1994). Intransitivity of preferences in honey bees: support for 'comparative' evaluation of foraging options. Animal Behaviour 48: 55-67.
  • Shafir, S., D.G. Wiegmann, B.H. Smith & L.A. Real (1999). Risk sensitive foraging: choice behaviour of honey bees in response to variability in volume of reward. Animal Behaviour 57: 1055-1061.
  • Sharma, O.P. & D. Raj (1988). Ecological studies on predatory wasps attacking Italian honeybee, Apis mellifera, in Kangra shivaliks. Indian Journal of Ecology 15: 168-171.
  • Stephens, D.W. & J.R. Krebs (1986). Foraging Theory. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
  • Virgil (30 B.C.) Georgics IV. Reprinted: Cambridge University Press (1988). Cambridge, U.K.
  • Waddington, K.D. & L.R. Holden (1979). Optimal foraging: on flower selection by bees. American Naturalist 127: 179-196.
  • Waddington, K.D. & N. Gottlieb (1990). Actual vs. perceived profitability: a study of floral choice of honey bees. Journal of Insect Behavior 3: 429-441.
  • Waser, N.M. (1983). The adaptive nature of floral traits: ideas and evidence, pp 241-281. In: L. Real (ed), Pollination Biology. Orlando, Academic Press.
  • Waser, N.M. & L.A. Real (1979). Effects of mutualism between sequentially flowering plant species. Nature 281: 670-672.
  • Wells, H. & R.R.S. Rathore (1994). Foraging ecology of the Asian hive bee, Apis cerana indica, within artificial flower patches. Journal of Apicultural Research 33: 219-230.
  • Wells, H. & R.R.S. Rathore (1994b). Discriminant conditioning of foragers in the Asian honey bees Apis cerana and Apis dorsata. Ecological Entomology 20: 374-379.
  • Wells, H., & P.H. Wells (1983). Honey bee foraging ecology: optimal diet, minimal uncertainty or individual constancy. Journal of Animal Ecology 52: 829-836.
  • Wells, H., & P.H. Wells (1986). Optimal diet, minimal uncertainty and individual constancy in the foraging of honey bees. Journal of Animal Ecology 55: 881-891.
  • Wells, H., P.S. Hill & P.H. Wells (1992). Nectivore foraging ecology: rewards differing in sugar types. Ecological Entomology 17: 280-288.W
  • Wells, P.H., & H. Wells (1984). Can honey bees change foraging patterns? Ecological Entomology 9: 467-473.
  • Wells, P.H., & H. Wells (1986b). Ethological Isolation of plants 2. Odor selection by honeybees. Journal of Apicultural Research 24: 86-92.
  • Wenner, A.M. & D.L. Johnson (1966). Simple conditioning in honeybees. Animal Behaviour 14: 149-155.
  • Wenner, A.M. & P.H. Wells (1990). Anatomy of a Controversy. Columbia University Press, New York, U.S.A.
Toplam 83 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Yapısal Biyoloji
Bölüm Araştırma Makaleleri
Yazarlar

Charlotte Sanderson Bu kişi benim

Harrington Wells Bu kişi benim

Yayımlanma Tarihi 26 Şubat 2005
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2005 Cilt: 05 Sayı: 1

Kaynak Göster

Vancouver Sanderson C, Wells H. The Flower Fıdelıty Of The Honeybee. U.Arı D.-U.Bee J. 2005;05(1):32-41.

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