Hasedin İnsan Hayatındaki Yıkıcı Etkileri ve Çözüm Arayışları

Öz

Yoksunluk hâli sonucu ortaya çıkan haset duygusu, yoğun bir acı hissi ve hayal kırıklığı ile deneyimlenir. Genellikle kötü niyet, suçluluk, aşağılık hissi, düşmanlık, saldırganlık gibi duygularla karakterize edilen haset, negatif duygulardan kıskançlık ve başkasının zararı-na sevinme, pozitif duygulardan gıpta ile yakından ilişkilidir. Bireyin psikolojik iyi oluş hâline etki eden haset duygusu, bireyin iç dünyasında gerilim ve çatışmalara yol açabil-mekte, diğer yandan kontrol duygusunu zayıflatıp diğerine zarar verici birtakım davranış-lara neden olabilmektedir. İslam geleneğinde kötü huylar kategorisinde ele alınan haset, yapısı itibariyle en başta Allah’ın iradesine, takdirine ve taksimine itiraz mahiyeti taşıdığı için dinî ve dünyevî açıdan zararlı görülmüş ve bu duygudan sakınılması tavsiye edilmiştir. Haset duygusunu inkâr etmek yerine bu duyguyu anlamak, kabullenmek ve onunla müca-dele etmeye çalışmak hasetle başa çıkmada faydalı bir yol olarak görülmüştür. Bu makale-de psikolojik ve dinî bakış açısına göre haset ve hasetle ilgili bazı duygular kendilerini hasetten ayıran farklılıklar ortaya konularak incelenmiş ve hasedin nedenleri üzerinde durulmuştur. Hasedin ruh sağlığı üzerindeki etkileri ile hasetle başa çıkma yolları açık-lanmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Din Psikolojisi
• Haset
• Kıskançlık
• Başkasının Zararına Sevinme
• Gıpta
• Sosyal Karşılaştır-ma
• Ruh Sağlığı

The Destructive Effects of Envy in Human Life and the Search for Solutions

Öz

Envy resulting from deprivation is experienced with intense pain and disappointment. Envy is usually characterized by feelings such as ill-will, guilt, inferiority, hostility, and aggression. It is also closely associated with negative feelings of jealousy and schadenfreude as well as positive feeling of benign envy. The feeling of envy, which affects the psychological well-being of the individual, can lead to tension and conflicts in the individual's inner world, on the other hand, it can weaken the sense of self-control and cause some harmful behaviors. Envy, which is considered in the category of bad habits in the Islamic tradition, is seen as harmful in terms of religion and worldly because it is an objection to Allah's will, volition, and division, and it is recommended to avoid this feeling. Instead of denying the feeling of envy, understanding it, accepting it and trying to struggle it is seen as a useful way to deal with envy. In this article envy is evaluated considering some positive and negative feelings associated to it. We approached the topic in a psychological and religious perspective, by revealing the differences that distinguish them from envy and the causes leading to envy is emphasized. The influences of envy on mental health and the ways of coping with envy is explained.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Psychology of Religion
• Envy
• Jealousy
• Schadenfreude
• Benign Envy
• Social Comparison
• Mental Health

Kaynakça

1. Abduh, Muhammed – Rızâ, Muhammed Reşîd. Menâr Tefsiri: Tefsiru’l-Kur’an-i’l-Hakîm. çev. Mehmet Erdoğan vd. 14 Cilt. İstanbul: Ekin Yayınları, 2011.
2. Alicke, Mark. D.- Zell, Ethan. “Social Comparison and Envy”. Series in Affective Science. Envy: Theory and Research. ed. Richard H. Smith. 73–93. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327953.003.0005
3. Arslan, Ali. Büyük Kur’an-ı Kerim Tefsiri (Hülâsâtü’t-Tefâsîr). 16 Cilt. İstanbul: Arslan Yayınları, ts.
4. Ateş, Süleyman. Yüce Kur’ân’ın Çağdaş Tefsiri. 12 Cilt. İstanbul: Yeni Ufuk Neşriyat, 1989.
5. Ateş, Süleyman. İslam Tasavvufu. İstanbul: Yeni Ufuk Neşriyat, 4. Basım, 2004.
6. Belk, Russell. “Benign Envy”. AMS Review 1 (2011), 117-134. doi:10.1007/ s13162-011-0018-x
7. Ben-Ze’ev, Aaron. “Envy and Jealousy”. Canadian Journal of Philosophy 20/4 (1990), 487-516. https://doi.org/10.1080/00455091.1990.10716502
8. Ben-Ze’ev, Aaron. “Envy and Inequality”. The Journal of Philosophy 84/11 (1992), 551–581. https://doi.org/10.2307/2941056

9. Ben-Ze’ev, Aaron. “Pleasure at Another’s Misfortune”. Iyyun, The Jerusalem Philosophical Quarterly 41 (1992), 41–61.
10. Ben-Ze’ev, Aaron. The Subtlety of Emotions. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001.
11. Ben-Ze’ev, Aaron “Are Envy, Anger, and Resentment Moral Emotions?” Philosophical Explorations 5/2 (2002), 148–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/10002002058538728
12. Berman, Avi. “Envy at the Crossroads Between Destruction, Self-actualization and Avoidance”. Envy, Competition and Gender: Theory, Clinical Applications and Group Work. ed. Leyla Navaro –Sharan L. Scwartzberg. 15-30. New York, NY: Routledge, 2007.
13. Berman, Avi. “Envy and Generativity: Owning Inner Resources”. Envy, Competition and Gender: Theory, Clinical Applications and Group Work. ed. Leyla Navaro –Sharan L. Scwartzberg. 85-102. New York, NY: Routledge, 2007.
14. Bilgin, Nuri. Sosyal Psikoloji Sözlüğü Kavramlar Yaklaşımlar. İstanbul: Bağlam, 2003.
15. Brigham, Nancy. L vd. “The Roles of Invidious Comparisons and Deservingness in Sympathy and Schadenfreude”. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 19/3 (1997), 363–380. https://doi.org/10.1207/15324839751037011
16. Bursevî, İsmâil Hakkı. Rûhu’l-Beyân Tefsiri. Çev. Abdullah Öz vd. 10 Cilt. İstanbul: Damla Yayınevi, 8. Basım, 2012.
17. Clanton, Gordon. “Jealousy and Envy”. Handbook of the sociology of emotions. ed. Jan. E. Stets - Jonathan. H. Turner. 410-442. New York: Springer, 2006.
18. Cooper, Arnold M. “The Narcissistic-masochistic Character”. Psychiatric Annals 39/10 (2009), 904–912. doi: 10.3928/00485718-20090924-02
19. Cowan-Jenssen, Sue. “Envy: Everyday and Everywhere”. Psychotherapy and Politics International 9/1 (2011), 43-51. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppi.231
20. Crusius, Jan - Lange Jens. “What Catches the Envious Eye? Attentional Biases within Malicious and Benign Envy”. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 55 (2014), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2014.05.007
21. Crusius, Jan vd., “Envy: An Adversarial Review and Comparison of Two Competing Views”. Emotion Review (2019), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073919873131
22. Çağrıcı, Mustafa. “Hased”. Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Ansiklopedisi. 16/378-380. An-kara: TDV Yayınları, 1997.
23. Davidson, William L. “Envy and Emulation”, Encylopedia of Religion and Ethics. ed. James Hastings. 12 Cilt. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1908-1927.
24. Delpierre, Guy. Kıskançlık. çev. Halis Özgü. İstanbul: Özgü Yayınevi, 1967.
25. Epstein, Joseph. Envy: The Seven Deadly Sins. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.
26. Erzi, Seda. Başkasının Zararına Sevinme-Schadenfreude. Ankara: Nobel Bilimsel Eserler, 2019.
27. Erzi, Seda. “Yardım Davranışlarının Schadenfreude, Benlik Saygısı ve Benlik Tehdit Algısı Bakımından İncelenmesi”. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi 27/3 (2019), 1015-1021. https://doi.org/10.24106/kefdergi.2369 Farber, Leslie H. The Ways of the Will. New York: Basic Books, 1966.
28. Feather, Norman T. - Sherman, Rebecca. “Envy, Resentment, Schadenfreude, and Sympathy: Reactions to Deserved and Underserved Achievement and Subsequ-ent Failure”. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28/7 (2002), 953–961. https://doi.org/10.1177/01467202028007008
29. Feather, Norman T. - Nairn, Katherine. “Resentment, Envy, Schadenfreude, and Sympathy: Effects of Own and Other’s Deserved or Undeserved Status”. Australian Journal of Psychology 57/2 (2005), 87–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049530500048672
30. Feather, Norman T. - McKee, Ian R. “Differentiating Emotions in Relation to Deserved or Undeserved Outcomes: A Retrospective Study of Real-life Events”. Cognition & Emotion 23/5 (2009), 955-977. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930802243378
31. Foster, George M. “The Anatomy of Envy: A Study in Symbolic Behaviour”. Current Anthropology 13 (1972), 165-202. https://doi.org/10.1086/201267
32. Gazâlî, Ebû Hâmid Muhammed b. Muhammed. Kimyâ-i Saâdet. çev. A. Faruk Meyan. 2 Cilt. İstanbul: Bedir Yayınları, 1990.
33. Gazâlî, Ebû Hâmid Muhammed b. Muhammed. İhyâ-i ‘Ulûmi’d-Dîn. çev. Ahmet Serdaroğlu. 4 Cilt. İstanbul: Bedir Yayınları, 2019.
34. Gressel, Josh. Embracing Envy: Finding the Spiritual Treasure in Our Most Shameful Emotion. Lanham: University Press of America, 2014.
35. Gürses, İbrahim. Dindarlık ve Kişilik. Bursa: Emin Yayınları, 2010.
36. Habimana, Emmanuel - Massé, Line. “Envy Manifestations and Personality Disor-ders”. European Psychiatry 15 (2000), 15-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-9338(00)00501-0
37. Hacker, P.M.S. The Passions: A Study of Human Nature. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2018.
38. Hareli, Shlomo - Weiner, Bernard. “Dislike and Envy as Antecedents of Pleasure at Another’s Misfortune”. Motivation and Emotion 26/4 (2002), 257–277. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022818803399
39. Henniger, Nicole E - Harris, Christine R. “Can Negative Social Emotions Have Positive Consequences?: An Examination of Embarrassment, Shame, Guilt, Jealousy, and Envy”. The Positive Side of Negative Emotions. ed. W. Gerrod Parrott. 76–97. New York: The Guilford Press, 2014.
40. İbn Hazm. Ahlak ve Davranış Tarzları Nefislerdeki Ahlâkî Hastalıkların Tedavisi. çev. Mustafa Çağrıcı. 2. Basım. Ankara: TDV Yayınları, 2015.
41. İbn Kayyım el-Cevziyye. İbn Kayyim Tefsiri: Bedâi’u’t-tefsîr. der. Yüsrî es-Seyyid Muhammed. çev. Mehmet Ali Kara vd. İstanbul: Karınca & Polen Yayınları, 2011.
42. İbn Kayyım el-Cevziyye. Allah Sevgisi. çev. İshak Emin Aktepe – Ahmet Akbaş. İstanbul: Karınca & Polen Yayınları, 2012.
43. İsfahânî, Ebu’l-Kāsım er-Râgıb. Müfredât: Kur’ân Kavramları Sözlüğü. çev. Abdulbaki Güneş – Mehmet Yolcu. İstanbul: Çıra Yayınları, 2012.
44. İsfahânî, Ebū’l-Kâsım er-Râgıb. ez-Zerî‘a ilâ makāmi’l-şerî‘a: Erdemli Yol. çev. Muharrem Tan. İstanbul: İz, 4.Basım, 2019.
45. Joseph, Betty. “Envy in Everyday Life”. Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy 2/1 (1986), 13- 22. https://doi.org/10.1080/02668738600700021
46. Kernberg, Otto. Aggressivity, Narcissism, and Self-destructiveness in the Psychotherape-utic Relationship: New Developments in the Psychopathology and Psychotherapy of Se-vere Personality Disorders. New Heaven and London: Yale University Press, 2004.
47. Kets de Vries, Manfred F.R. Sex, Money, Happiness, and Death: The Quest for Authenti-city. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
48. Kınalızâde Ali Efendi. Ahlâk-ı Alâî. haz. Hüseyin Algül. İstanbul: Tercüman 1001 Temel Eser, ts.
49. Kilborne, Benjamin. Utanç ve Haset: Görünüm Kaygısı ve Kem Göz. çev. Burçak Erdal. ed. Sibel Mercan. İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi, 2014.
50. Kuipers, Giselinde. “Schadenfreude and Social life: A Comparative Perspective on the Expression and Regulation of Mirth at the Expense of Others”. Schadenfreude: Understanding Pleasure at the Misfortune of Others. ed. Wilco W. van Dijk - Jaap W. Ouwerkerk. 259–274. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
51. Kur’ân-ı Kerîm Meâli. çev. Halil Altuntaş – Muzaffer Şahin. Ankara: DİB Yayınları, 13.Basım, 2012.
52. Kurtubî, Ebû Abdillah Muhammed b. Ahmed. el-Câmi‘ li Ahkâmi’l-Kur’ân. çev. M. Beşir Eryarsoy. 20 Cilt. İstanbul: Buruc Yayınları, 1997.
53. Lange, Jens - Crusius, Jan. “Dispositional Envy Revisited: Unraveling the Motivatio-nal Dynamics of Benign and Malicious Envy”. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 41/2 (2015), 284-294. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167214564959
54. Lazarus, Richard. S. Emotion and Adaptation. NY: Oxford University Press, 1991.
55. Lazarus, Richard S. – Lazarus, Bernice N. Passion and Reason: Making Sense of Our Emo-tions. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.
56. Leach, Colin Wayne - Spears, Russell. “A Wengefulness of the Impotent: The Pain of in-group Inferiority and Schadenfreude Toward Successful Out-groups”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95/6 (2008), 1383–1396. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012629
57. Leach, Colin Wayne vd., “Situating Schadenfreude in Social Relations”. Schadenfreu-de: Understanding Pleasure at the Misfortune of Others. ed. Wilco W. van Dijk - Jaap W. Ouwerkerk. 200-216. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
58. Mâverdî, Ebu’l-Hasen. Yüce Hedefler Kitabı. çev. Ahmed Cevdet Efendi. İstanbul: Büyüyen Ay Yayınları, 2. Basım, 2013.
59. Miceli, Maria - Castelfranchi, Cristiano. “The Envious Mind”. Cognition and Emotion 21/3 (2007), 449-479. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930600814735
60. Muhâsibî, Haris b. Esed. er-Riâye: Nefs Muhasebesinin Temelleri. çev. Şahin Filiz - Hülya Küçük. İstanbul: İnsan Yayınları, 4. Basım, 2011.
61. Navaro, Leyla - Schwartzberg, Sharan L. “Conclusions and Therapeutic Implications”. Envy, Competition and Gender: Theory, Clinical Applications and Group Work. ed. Leyla Navaro –Sharan L. Scwartzberg. 205–211. New York, NY: Routledge, 2007.
62. Navaro, Leyla. Haset ve Rekabet Kendi Kuyruğunu Yiyen Yılan. İstanbul: Remzi Yayınevi, 3. Basım, 2015.
63. Nevevî, Ebû Zekeriyyâ Muhyiddin Yahyâ b. Şeref b. Muri. Riyâzü’s-Sâlihîn. çev.- şerh. M. Yaşar Kandemir vd. 8 Cilt. İstanbul: Erkam Yayınları, 2009.
64. Ninivaggi, Frank John. Envy Theory: Perspectives on the Rsychology of Envy. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010.
65. Özakkaş, Tahir. Bütüncül Psikoterapi. İstanbul: Litera Yayıncılık, 8. Basım, 2016.
66. Parrott, W. Gerrod. “The Emotional Experience of Envy and Jealousy”. The Psychology of Jealousy and Envy. ed. Peter Salovey. 3–30. New York: Guilford Press, 1991.
67. Pines, Ayala Malach. Aşk ve Kıskançlık. çev. Canan Yonsel. İstanbul: Okyanus Yayınla-rı, 2003.
68. Powell, Caitlin A. J. vd. “Schadenfreude Caused by an Envied Person’s Pain”. Series in Affective Science. Envy: Theory and Research. ed. Richard H. Smith. 148–164. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. Power, Mick - Dalgleish, Tim. Cognition and Emotion: From Order to Disorder. Hove, U.K.: Taylor Francis, 2.Basım, 2007.
69. Protasi, Sara. “Varieties of Envy”. Philosophical Psychology 29 (2016), 535–549.
70. Quintanilla, Laura – Jensen de López, Kristine. “The Niche of Envy: Conceptualization, Coping Strategies, and the Ontogenesis of Envy in Cultural Psychology”. Culture & Psychology 19/1 (2013), 76–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354067X12464980
71. Rawls, John. A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971.
72. Râzî, Fahreddin. Tefsîr-i Kebîr Mefâtîhu’l-Gayb. çev. Suat. Yıldırım vd. 23 Cilt. Ankara: Akçağ Yayınları, 1988-2002.
73. Salovey, Peter – Rodin, Judith. “Coping with Envy and Jealousy”. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 7/1 (1988), 15-33. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1988.7.1.15
74. Schimmel, Solomon. “Envy in Jewish Thought and Literature”. Envy: Theory and Research. ed. Richard H. Smith. 17–38. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
75. Schoeck, Helmut. Envy: A Theory of Social Behavior. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1969.
76. Semerkandî, Ebu’l-Leys Nasr b. Muhammed b. Ahmed b. İbrâhim. Tefsîru’l-Kur’an. çev. Mehmet Karadeniz. 6 Cilt. İstanbul: Özgü Yayınları, 1993.
77. Shrand, Joseph - Devine, Leigh. Outsmarting Anger: 7 Strategies for Defusing Our Most Dangerous Emotion. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2013.
78. Smith, Richard H. vd., “Envy and Jealousy Semantic Problems and Experiential Dis-tinctions”. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 14/2 (1988), 401–409. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167288142017
79. Smith, Richard H. “Envy and the Sense of Injustice”. The Psychology of Jealousy and Envy. ed. Peter Salovey. 79–99.New York and London: Guilford Press, 1991.
80. Smith, Richard H. vd., “Subjective Injustice and Inferiority as Predictors of Hostile and Depressive Feelings in Envy”. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 20/6 (1994), 705–711. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167294206008
81. Smith, Richard H. vd., “Envy and Schadenfreude”. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 22/2 (1996), 158–168. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167296222005
82. Smith, Richard H. - Kim, Sung Hee. “Comprehending Envy”. Psychological Bulletin 133/1 (2007), 46–64. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.46
83. Smith, Tiffany Watt. Schadenfreude: Başkasının Talihsizliğinden Duyulan Keyif. çev. Nüvit Bingöl. İstanbul: Kolektif Kitap, 2. Basım, 2020.
84. Spielman, Philip M. “Envy and Jealousy an Attempt at Clarification”. Psychoanalytic Quarterly 40 (1971), 59–82.
85. Strongman, Kenneth T. The Psychology of Emotion, from Everyday life to Theory. England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 5. Basım, 2003.
86. Taburoğlu, Özgür. Nazar Başkası Nasıl Görür?. Ankara: Doğu Batı Yayınları, 2017.
87. Testa, Maria - Major, Brenda. “The Impact of Social Comparison After Failure: The Moderating Effects of Perceived Control”. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 11 (1990), 205–218. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp1102_7
88. Van de Ven, Niels vd., “Leveling up and down: The Experiences of Benign and Mali-cious Envy”. Emotion 9/3 (2009), 419–429. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015669
89. Van de Ven, Niels vd., “Why Envy Outperforms Admiration”. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 37/6 (2011), 784–795. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211400421
90. Van Dijk, Wilco W vd. “Selfesteem Self-affirmation and Schadenfreude”. Emotion 11/6 (2011a), 1445–1449. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026331
91. Van Dijk, Wilco W. - Ouwerkerk, Jaap W. “Introduction to Schadenfreude”. Schadenfreude: Understanding Pleasure at the Misfortune of Others. ed. Wilco W. van Dijk - Jaap W. Ouwerkerk. 1-13. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
92. Vidaillet, Bénédicte. Workplace Envy. London: Palgrave McMillan, 2008.
93. Yazçiçek, Ramazan. Haset. İstanbul: Ekin Yayınları, 2.Basım, 2014.
94. Yazır, E. M. Hamdi. Hak Dini Kur’ân Dili. sad. İsmail. Karaçam vd. 10 Cilt. İstanbul: Zehraveyn Yayınları, 1992.