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MAKING SENSE OF THE GLOBAL REFUGEE CRISIS: A WORLD-SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE ON SYRIA AND AFGHANISTAN

Yıl 2021, Sayı: 7, 1587 - 1614, 25.12.2021
https://doi.org/10.47994/usbad.995723

Öz

The world is facing the largest global refugee crisis since World War II. This prompts one to suggest that the refugee issue has never been as international as it is today. The present article uses incorporated comparison and world-systems theory to investigate the international dynamics of the current global refugee crisis. It focuses on the cases of Syria and Afghanistan as being among the most recent and significant episodes of the global refugee crisis. The findings reveal that the refugee crises in these countries exhibit shared dynamics. In political-economic terms, both cases represent the focal point of the current global refugee crisis, which mainly stems from “structural imbalances” associated with “incorporation” into the world-system. Geopolitically speaking, growing multipolarity and the current phase of “hegemonic crisis” lay the groundwork for this crisis at the international level. Finally, one should also take into account the geo-cultural dynamics of the global refugee crisis. The waning importance of “anti-systemic movements” in the post-Soviet era and the rise in significance of ethno-religious identities in the periphery combine with the growing popularity of racism and xenophobia in core countries to legitimize and consolidate the system of “unequal exchange”, which deepens the refugee crisis even further.

Kaynakça

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  • Amin, S. (1990). Delinking: Towards a Polycentric World. London: Zed Books.
  • Amnesty. (1999). Refugees From Afghanistan: The World’s Largest Single Refugee Group. Amnesty International. Kasım 1999. Erişim Adresi: https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/asa110161999en.pdf.
  • Arrighi, G. (1999). Chaos and Governance in the Modern World System 10. U of Minnesota Press. Arrighi, G. (2010). The Long Twentieth Century. London: Verso.
  • Asian development Bank. (2021). Poverty Data: Afghanistan. Erişim Adresi: https://www.adb.org/countries/afghanistan/poverty
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  • Bornstein, M. H., Bernhard, J. K., Bradley, R. H., Chen, X., Farver, J. A. M., Gold, S. J., ... & Yoshikawa, H. (2019). Psychological Acculturation: Perspectives, Principles, Processes, and Prospects. In Routledge International Handbook of Migration Studies (pp. 19-31). Routledge.
  • Brzezinski, Z. (1998). The Grand Chessboard 1. New York: Basic Books. Cankara, Y., & Çerez, O. (2020). Tarihsel Süreç İçerisinde Afganistan’ın Göç Sorunu ve Türkiye’ye Yansımaları. Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları 124(245), 447-460.
  • Cope, Z. (2019). The Wealth of (Some) Nations: Imperialism and the Mechanics of Value Transfer. London: Pluto Press.
  • d’Appollonia, A. C. (2017). Xenophobia, Racism and the Securitization of Immigration. In Handbook on Migration and Security. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.
  • De Genova, N. (2018). The “Migrant Crisis” as Racial Crisis: Do Black Lives Matter in Europe?. Ethnic and Racial Studies 41(10), 1765-1782.
  • Demir, S. (2021). Afganistan’daki Yirmi Yıllık İşgalin Analizi: ABD/NATO ve Barış Çabaları. Uluslararası Kriz ve Siyaset Araştırmaları Dergisi 5(1), 114-153.
  • Dettmer, J. (2021). Avrupa’da Afgan Göçmen Endişesi. Amerika’nın Sesi. 4 Ağustos 2021. Erişim Adresi: https://www.amerikaninsesi.com/a/avrupada-afgan-gocmen-endisesi/5989339.html ENAR. (2015). Racially Motivated Crimes 2011 – 2015. European Network Against Racism. Erişim Adresi: https://www.enar-eu.org/Racially-motivated-crimes-2011-
  • 2015 Erman, K. (2019). Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti Dış Politikasında Afganistan. Karadeniz Uluslararası Bilimsel Dergi 42, 154-176.
  • European Commission. (2020). Integration of Immigrants in the European Union. Eurobarometer: Integration of Immigrants in the European Union. Nisan 2018. Erişim Adresi: https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2169
  • European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction. (2016). 2016 EU Drug Markets Report: In-depth Analysis. 4 Ağustos 2021. Erişim Adresi: https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/2373/TD0216072ENN.PDF
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  • Gürcan, E. C. (2019a). Avrupa Bölgeciliğinin Krizinin Sosyo-Ekonomik ve Jeopolitik Boyutları. Sosyologca 17(1), 31–40.
  • Gürcan, E. C. (2019b). Building a Fair World Order in a Post-American Age [Amerika Sonrası Dönemde Adil Bir Dünya Düzeni İnşa Etmek]. Belt & Road Initiative Quarterly 1(1), 6-16.
  • Gürcan, E. C. (2019c). Extractivism, Neoliberalism, and the Environment: Revisiting the Syrian Conflict from an Ecological Justice Perspective. Capitalism Nature Socialism 30(3), 91–109.
  • Gürcan, E. C. (2020). Arap Baharı Sonrası Uluslararası Güvenlik: Suriye ve Libya Çatışmalarının Yurtiçi ve Uluslararası Kaynakları (2011-2020). Belt and Road Initiative Quarterly 2(1), 67-83. Gürcan, E. C. (2021). Çin-Taliban İlişkisi. Aydınlık Gazetesi. 20 Ağustos 2021. Erişim Adresi: https://aydinlik.com.tr/asya-tanidi-avrupa-sirada-254518#1 Gürcan, E. C., & Mete, B. (2017).
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  • Jalilian, H., & Reyes, G. (2012). Migrants of the Mekong: Wins and Losses. In Costs and Benefits of Cross-country Labour Migration in the GMS (pp. 1-117). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
  • Kalouche, F., & Mielants, E. (2005). Transformations of the World-System and Antisystemic Movements: 1968-2005. Making Waves: Worldwide Social Movements, 128-167.
  • Karataş, İ. (2021). Iran's Use of Afghan Shiite Migrants as Proxies: The Case of Liwa Fatemiyoun. İran Çalışmaları Dergisi 5(1), 31-53.
  • Karpestam, P., & Andersson, F. N. (2013). Economic Perspectives on Migration. In Routledge International Handbook of Migration Studies (pp. 29-44). Routledge.
  • Kaura, V. (2021). Russia’s Afghan Policy: Determinants and Outcomes. Strategic Analysis, 1-19.
  • Khalil, A. B. (2021). Afghanistan and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. The Diplomat. 14 Temmuz 2021. Erişim Adresi: https://thediplomat.com/2021/07/afghanistan-and-the-shanghai-cooperation-organization/
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  • Massey, D. S. (1993). Theories of International Migration: A Review and Appraisal. Population and Development Review 19(3), 431-466.
  • McMichael, P. (1990). Incorporating Comparison within a World-Historical Perspective: An Alternative Comparative Method. American Sociological Review, 385-397.
  • McMichael, P. (2000). World-Systems Analysis, Globalization, and Incorporated Comparison. Journal of World-Systems Research, 668-689.
  • Mehran, W. (2021). Afghan Brain Drain: The best and Brightest Leaving Afghanistan Will Be a Headache for the Taliban. 4 Ağustos 2021. Erişim Adresi: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2021/08/31/afghan-brain-drain-best-brightest-leaving-afghanistan-will-headache/
  • Munir, M., & Shafiq, M. (2018). Geostrategic Significance of Wakhan Corridor for Afghanistan, China and Pakistan. Margalla Papers 22(1), 203-215.
  • Mustafa, M. I. G., & Bhatti, M. R. (2020). Geopolitical Dynamics of Afghanistan and Concerns of Regional and Global Actors vis a vis Pakistan. Pakistan Social Sciences Review 4(3), 792-806.
  • Obayd, A. J., & Karataş, A. (2021). Afganistan’da Göç Hareketliliğinin Neden ve Sonuçları. Karadeniz Uluslararası Bilimsel Dergi 1(50), 75-91.
  • Oktay, S. (2010). Mülteciler İçin Cazip Ülke: Türkiye. Deutsche Welle Türkçe. 12 Ekim 2010. Erişim Adresi: https://www.dw.com/tr/m%C3%BClteciler-i%C3%A7in-cazip-%C3%BClke-t%C3%BCrkiye/a-14741919
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DÜNYA SİSTEMLERİ ANALİZİ ÜZERİNDEN KÜRESEL MÜLTECİ KRİZİNİ ANLAMLANDIRMAK: SURİYE VE AFGANİSTAN ÖRNEKLERİ

Yıl 2021, Sayı: 7, 1587 - 1614, 25.12.2021
https://doi.org/10.47994/usbad.995723

Öz

Günümüz dünyası, İkinci Dünya Savaşı’ndan bu yana tarihin en büyük mülteci krizi ile karşı karşıyadır. Bu nedenle, bugün mülteci sorununun daha önce hiç olmadığı kadar uluslararası bir olgu haline geldiği söylenebilir. Mevcut makale, birleşik karşılaştırma yöntemi ve dünya sistemleri kuramına dayanarak küresel mülteci krizinin hangi uluslararası dinamiklere dayandığı sorusu etrafında şekillenmiştir. Bu soruyu açıklamak için küresel mülteci krizine en canlı ve güncel örnekler arasında gösterilen Suriye ve Afganistan’a yoğunlaşılmıştır. Birleşik karşılaştırma analizi, Suriye ve Afganistan’da yaşanan mülteci krizlerinin birtakım ortak dinamikler üzerinden yükseldiğini göstermektedir. Politik-ekonomik anlamda, her iki ülke de; çeper coğrafyasına ait ülkeler olarak, dünya sistemi ile bütünleşme (inkorporasyon) dönemlerinde oluşan ciddi yapısal dengesizliklerin etkisi ile küresel mülteci krizinin oluşumunda büyük rol oynamıştır. Jeopolitik olarak, günümüz dünya sisteminde yaşanmakta olan çok kutuplulaşma ve “hegemonik kriz”, söz konusu mülteci krizinin maddi zeminini sağlamlaştırmıştır. Son olarak, jeo-kültürel dinamiklerin mevcut mülteci krizini daha da ileriye taşımaya hizmet ettiği söylenebilir. Sovyet sonrası dönemde “anti-sistemik hareketler”in ideolojik düzlemde geri çekilmesi ve etnik-dinî temelli akımların ön plana taşınması ile birlikte merkez ülkelerde yaygınlaşan ırkçılık ve yabancı düşmanlığı, “eşitsiz mübadele” mekanizmalarının meşruluğunun yeniden üretilmesini sağlamıştır.

Kaynakça

  • Abbas, H. (2014). The Taliban Revival. New Haven: Yale University Press.
  • Acim, R. (2019). Islamophobia, Racism and the Vilification of the Muslim Diaspora. Islamophobia Studies Journal 5(1), 26-44.
  • Akbarzadeh, S., & Ibrahimi, N. (2020). The Taliban: a new proxy for Iran in Afghanistan?. Third World Quarterly 41(5), 764-782.
  • Amin, S. (1990). Delinking: Towards a Polycentric World. London: Zed Books.
  • Amnesty. (1999). Refugees From Afghanistan: The World’s Largest Single Refugee Group. Amnesty International. Kasım 1999. Erişim Adresi: https://www.amnesty.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/asa110161999en.pdf.
  • Arrighi, G. (1999). Chaos and Governance in the Modern World System 10. U of Minnesota Press. Arrighi, G. (2010). The Long Twentieth Century. London: Verso.
  • Asian development Bank. (2021). Poverty Data: Afghanistan. Erişim Adresi: https://www.adb.org/countries/afghanistan/poverty
  • Bandhauer, C. A. (2015). 11 The Post-9/11 Anti-Immigrant Movement. In Mass Migration in the World-System (pp. 210-228). Routledge.
  • Bornstein, M. H., Bernhard, J. K., Bradley, R. H., Chen, X., Farver, J. A. M., Gold, S. J., ... & Yoshikawa, H. (2019). Psychological Acculturation: Perspectives, Principles, Processes, and Prospects. In Routledge International Handbook of Migration Studies (pp. 19-31). Routledge.
  • Brzezinski, Z. (1998). The Grand Chessboard 1. New York: Basic Books. Cankara, Y., & Çerez, O. (2020). Tarihsel Süreç İçerisinde Afganistan’ın Göç Sorunu ve Türkiye’ye Yansımaları. Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları 124(245), 447-460.
  • Cope, Z. (2019). The Wealth of (Some) Nations: Imperialism and the Mechanics of Value Transfer. London: Pluto Press.
  • d’Appollonia, A. C. (2017). Xenophobia, Racism and the Securitization of Immigration. In Handbook on Migration and Security. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.
  • De Genova, N. (2018). The “Migrant Crisis” as Racial Crisis: Do Black Lives Matter in Europe?. Ethnic and Racial Studies 41(10), 1765-1782.
  • Demir, S. (2021). Afganistan’daki Yirmi Yıllık İşgalin Analizi: ABD/NATO ve Barış Çabaları. Uluslararası Kriz ve Siyaset Araştırmaları Dergisi 5(1), 114-153.
  • Dettmer, J. (2021). Avrupa’da Afgan Göçmen Endişesi. Amerika’nın Sesi. 4 Ağustos 2021. Erişim Adresi: https://www.amerikaninsesi.com/a/avrupada-afgan-gocmen-endisesi/5989339.html ENAR. (2015). Racially Motivated Crimes 2011 – 2015. European Network Against Racism. Erişim Adresi: https://www.enar-eu.org/Racially-motivated-crimes-2011-
  • 2015 Erman, K. (2019). Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti Dış Politikasında Afganistan. Karadeniz Uluslararası Bilimsel Dergi 42, 154-176.
  • European Commission. (2020). Integration of Immigrants in the European Union. Eurobarometer: Integration of Immigrants in the European Union. Nisan 2018. Erişim Adresi: https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2169
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  • Gürcan, E. C. (2019a). Avrupa Bölgeciliğinin Krizinin Sosyo-Ekonomik ve Jeopolitik Boyutları. Sosyologca 17(1), 31–40.
  • Gürcan, E. C. (2019b). Building a Fair World Order in a Post-American Age [Amerika Sonrası Dönemde Adil Bir Dünya Düzeni İnşa Etmek]. Belt & Road Initiative Quarterly 1(1), 6-16.
  • Gürcan, E. C. (2019c). Extractivism, Neoliberalism, and the Environment: Revisiting the Syrian Conflict from an Ecological Justice Perspective. Capitalism Nature Socialism 30(3), 91–109.
  • Gürcan, E. C. (2020). Arap Baharı Sonrası Uluslararası Güvenlik: Suriye ve Libya Çatışmalarının Yurtiçi ve Uluslararası Kaynakları (2011-2020). Belt and Road Initiative Quarterly 2(1), 67-83. Gürcan, E. C. (2021). Çin-Taliban İlişkisi. Aydınlık Gazetesi. 20 Ağustos 2021. Erişim Adresi: https://aydinlik.com.tr/asya-tanidi-avrupa-sirada-254518#1 Gürcan, E. C., & Mete, B. (2017).
  • Neoliberalism and the Changing Face of Unionism: the Combined and Uneven Development of Class Capacities in Turkey. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Haider, M., & Hussain, N. (2020).
  • The Role of Pakistan and China in Afghanistan: Prospects for Regional Cooperation. Pakistan Journal of History and Culture 41(1), 1-18.
  • Hamsici, M. (2019). Türkiye'de Kaç Suriyeli Var, En Çok Suriyeli Nüfusu Hangi Şehirde Yaşıyor?. BBC Türkçe. 31 Temmuz 2019. Erişim Adresi: https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-turkiye-49150143
  • Inghilleri, M. (2016). Translation and Migration. New York: Routledge.
  • Jalilian, H., & Reyes, G. (2012). Migrants of the Mekong: Wins and Losses. In Costs and Benefits of Cross-country Labour Migration in the GMS (pp. 1-117). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
  • Kalouche, F., & Mielants, E. (2005). Transformations of the World-System and Antisystemic Movements: 1968-2005. Making Waves: Worldwide Social Movements, 128-167.
  • Karataş, İ. (2021). Iran's Use of Afghan Shiite Migrants as Proxies: The Case of Liwa Fatemiyoun. İran Çalışmaları Dergisi 5(1), 31-53.
  • Karpestam, P., & Andersson, F. N. (2013). Economic Perspectives on Migration. In Routledge International Handbook of Migration Studies (pp. 29-44). Routledge.
  • Kaura, V. (2021). Russia’s Afghan Policy: Determinants and Outcomes. Strategic Analysis, 1-19.
  • Khalil, A. B. (2021). Afghanistan and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. The Diplomat. 14 Temmuz 2021. Erişim Adresi: https://thediplomat.com/2021/07/afghanistan-and-the-shanghai-cooperation-organization/
  • Lewis, D. G. (2020). Return to Kabul? Russian Policy in Afghanistan. Manfredi Firmian, F. (2020). The War in Syrıa: A Longue Durée Perspective. Asian Affairs 51(1), 42-70.
  • Massey, D. S. (1993). Theories of International Migration: A Review and Appraisal. Population and Development Review 19(3), 431-466.
  • McMichael, P. (1990). Incorporating Comparison within a World-Historical Perspective: An Alternative Comparative Method. American Sociological Review, 385-397.
  • McMichael, P. (2000). World-Systems Analysis, Globalization, and Incorporated Comparison. Journal of World-Systems Research, 668-689.
  • Mehran, W. (2021). Afghan Brain Drain: The best and Brightest Leaving Afghanistan Will Be a Headache for the Taliban. 4 Ağustos 2021. Erişim Adresi: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2021/08/31/afghan-brain-drain-best-brightest-leaving-afghanistan-will-headache/
  • Munir, M., & Shafiq, M. (2018). Geostrategic Significance of Wakhan Corridor for Afghanistan, China and Pakistan. Margalla Papers 22(1), 203-215.
  • Mustafa, M. I. G., & Bhatti, M. R. (2020). Geopolitical Dynamics of Afghanistan and Concerns of Regional and Global Actors vis a vis Pakistan. Pakistan Social Sciences Review 4(3), 792-806.
  • Obayd, A. J., & Karataş, A. (2021). Afganistan’da Göç Hareketliliğinin Neden ve Sonuçları. Karadeniz Uluslararası Bilimsel Dergi 1(50), 75-91.
  • Oktay, S. (2010). Mülteciler İçin Cazip Ülke: Türkiye. Deutsche Welle Türkçe. 12 Ekim 2010. Erişim Adresi: https://www.dw.com/tr/m%C3%BClteciler-i%C3%A7in-cazip-%C3%BClke-t%C3%BCrkiye/a-14741919
  • Pakkan, Ş. (2020). Haberin “İdeolojik” Dönüşümü. Asos Journal 8(111), 167-196.
  • Phillips, J. (2021). Afghanistan/Pakistan. The Heritage Foundation. Erişim Adresi: https://www.heritage.org/sites/default/files/2020 11/2021_IndexOfUSMilitaryStrength_ASSESSMENT_THREATS_AF-PAK.pdf
  • Portes, A. (2006, June). Migration and Development: A Conceptual Review of the Evidence. In Migration and Development: Perspectives from the South, Bellagio Study and Conference Centre.
  • Portes, A., & Walton, J. (1981). Labor, Class, and the International System. New York: Academic Press. Poushter, J. (2016). European Opinions of the Refugee Crisis in 5 Charts. Pew Research Center 16.
  • Powell, B. (2017). The Origins of George F. Kennan’s Theory of Containment: Stalin’s Russia and the Failure of US Foreign Policy (Doctoral dissertation, Rice University). 9 Eylül 2021. Erişim Adresi: https://scholarship.rice.edu/bitstream/handle/1911/95204/BeckyPowell_Thesis-2017.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
  • Ross, R. S. (1999). The Geography of the Peace: East Asia in the Twenty-First Century. International Security 23(4), 81-118.
  • Sassen, S. (1994). Cities in a World Economy. Los Angeles: Pine Forge Press. Sopko, J. F. (2019). Afghanistan Reconstruction. PRISM 8(2), 26-39.
  • Sorenson, D. S. (2018). An Introduction to the Modern Middle East: History, Religion, Political Economy, Politics. Routledge. T. C. İçişleri Bakanlığı Göç İdaresi Genel Müdürlüğü. (2021). Düzensiz Göç. 9 Eylül 2021. Erişim Adresi: https://www.goc.gov.tr/duzensiz-goc-istatistikler
  • TGRT. (2021). Tartışılacak iddia: Kanada, meslek sahibi Afganları ülkeye taşıyor. 4 Ağustos 2021. Erişim Adresi: https://www.tgrthaber.com.tr/dunya/tartisilacak-iddia-kanada-meslek-sahibi-afganlari-ulkeye-tasiyor-2791296
  • The United States Departments of Justice. (2020). FBI Releases 2020 Hate Crime Statistics. Erişim Adresi: https://www.justice.gov/hatecrimes/hate-crime-statistics
  • The World Bank. (2021). 10 Years On, Turkey Continues Its Support for an Ever-Growing Number of Syrian Refugees. 22 Haziran 2021. Erişim Adresi: https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2021/06/22/10-years-on-turkey-continues-its-support-for-an-ever-growing-number-of-syrian-refugees
  • Trofimov, Y. (2021). A Generation of Afghan Professionals Flees Ahead of Taliban Advance. 4 Ağustos 2021. Erişim Adresi:https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-generation-of-afghan-youth-afghanistan-american-troops-pullout-taliban-biden-11625667435
  • UNHCR. (t.y.). Global Trends At-a-Glance. Refugee Statistics. Erişim Adresi: https://www.unrefugees.org/refugee-facts/statistics//
  • UNHCR. (t.y.). Türkiye’deki Mülteciler ve Sığınmacılar. Birleşmiş Milletler Mülteci Örgütü. Erişim Adresi: https://www.unhcr.org/tr/turkiyedeki-multeciler-ve-siginmacilar
  • UN News. (2017). Afghanistan Opium Production Jumps 87 Per Cent to Record Level. Erişim Adresi: https://news.un.org/en/story/2017/11/636182-afghanistan-opium-production-jumps-87-cent-record-level-un-survey
  • Üst Polat, G. & Kılınç, D. (2021). Düzensiz Göç Sosyo-Kültürel Ve Ekonomik Yapıyı Değiştiriyor. Dünya Gazetesi. 28 Ağustos 2021. Erişim Adresi: https://www.dunya.com/ekonomi/duzensiz-goc-sosyo-kulturel-ve-ekonomik-yapiyi-degistiriyor-haberi-632119
  • Wallerstein, I. M. (2000). The Essential Wallerstein. New York: New Press.
  • Wallerstein, I.M. (1983). Historical Capitalism. London: Verso.
  • Watters, C. (2019). Forced migrants: Exclusion, Incorporation and a Moral Economy of Deservingness. In Routledge International Handbook of Migration Studies (pp. 81-89). Routledge.
  • Weber, C. (2021). International Relations Theory: A Critical Introduction. New York: Routledge.
Toplam 62 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Bölüm Araştırma Makaleleri
Yazarlar

Efe Can Gürcan 0000-0002-5415-3163

Erken Görünüm Tarihi 24 Aralık 2021
Yayımlanma Tarihi 25 Aralık 2021
Kabul Tarihi 21 Kasım 2021
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2021 Sayı: 7

Kaynak Göster

APA Gürcan, E. C. (2021). DÜNYA SİSTEMLERİ ANALİZİ ÜZERİNDEN KÜRESEL MÜLTECİ KRİZİNİ ANLAMLANDIRMAK: SURİYE VE AFGANİSTAN ÖRNEKLERİ. Uluslararası Sosyal Bilimler Akademi Dergisi(7), 1587-1614. https://doi.org/10.47994/usbad.995723

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