Factors Affecting Location-Based Career Planning of Freelance Employees: An Asymmetric Analysis by OECD Member Countries

Yıl 2024, , 909 - 925, 31.08.2024

Sergen Gürsoy

https://doi.org/10.21076/vizyoner.1467990

Cited By: 1

Öz

The growing interest in freelancing after the 1980s has led to the need to deepen the academic scope. Although there are various studies on freelancing, location-based studies have remained at a basic level. The study aims to identify the factors affecting the location-based career planning of freelancers in the context of OECD countries. In this context, the methodology of the research is a theoretical comparative qualitative analysis based on asymmetric analysis (Fuzzy Set QCA). The adequacy/requirements, configurations and country-specific clusters of effective conditions suitable for self-employment are revealed. According to the research findings, while all variables are found to be sufficient for the freelancing score in a singular sense, the absence of demand for freelancers reveals the absence of demand for the freelancing score as an absolute requirement. Based on the configuration results, specific results are found that could potentially suggest a model for freelancing status (FS) and non-freelancing status (~FS) of countries. Ultimately, the findings are instrumental in identifying the most favorable conditions and countries for freelancers. In this way, the research enables employees to plan their careers by taking into account the conditions that they deem important for them individually.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Freelancer, OECD, Career Planning, FsQCA, Asymmetric Analysis

Freelance Çalışanların Lokasyona Dayalı Kariyer Planlamasında Etkili Olan Faktörler: OECD Üye Ülkelerine Göre Asimetrik Analiz

Öz

1980'lerden sonra serbest çalışmaya artan ilgi, akademik kapsamın derinleştirilmesi ihtiyacını doğurmuştur. Serbest çalışma konusunda çeşitli çalışmalar olmasına rağmen lokasyon bazlı çalışmalar temel düzeyde kalmıştır. Araştırma, OECD ülkeleri bağlamında serbest çalışanların lokasyon bazlı kariyer planlaması yapmalarına etki eden faktörleri belirlemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu bağlamda araştırmanın yöntemi asimetrik analize (Bulanık Küme KKA) dayalı teorik karşılaştırmalı nitel analiz olarak belirlenmiştir. Serbest çalışmaya uygun etkin koşulların yeterliliği/gereklilikleri, konfigürasyonları ve ülkeye özgü kümelenmeleri ortaya konulmaktadır. Araştırma bulgularına göre, tüm değişkenlerin tekil anlamda freelance skoru için yeterli olduğu belirlenirken; freelance çalışanlara yönelik talebin olmaması, mutlak bir gereklilik olarak freelance skoru için talebin olmamasını ortaya koymaktadır. Konfigürasyon sonuçlarına göre, ülkelerin serbest çalışma durumu (FS) ve serbest çalışmama durumu (~FS) için potansiyel bir model önerisi oluşturabilecek spesifik sonuçlar bulunmuştur. Nihayetinde bulgular, serbest çalışanlar için en uygun koşulların ve ülkelerin belirlenmesinde etkili olmaktadır. Bu sayede araştırma, çalışanların bireysel anlamda önemli gördükleri koşulları dikkate alarak kariyer planlaması yapabilmelerine olanak sağlamaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Freelancer, OECD, Kariyer Planlama, FsQCA, Asimetrik Analiz

Kaynakça

• Ads Google. (2024). Ads. Retrieved February 05, 2024 from https://ads.google.com/intl/en_gb/getstarted/
• Bandara, R., Fernando, M., & Akter, S. (2021). Managing consumer privacy concerns and defensive behaviours in the digital marketplace. European Journal of Marketing, 55(1), 219-246. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-06-2019-0515
• Baruch, Y. (2006). Career development in organizations and beyond: Balancing traditional and contemporary viewpoints. Human Resource Management Review, 16(2), 125-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2006.03.002
• Bauer, S., Clark, D. D., & Lehr, W. (2010). Understanding broadband speed measurements. SSRN. https://ssrn.com/abstract=1988332
• Binder, M., & Blankenberg, A. K. (2020). Self-employment and subjective well-being. Handbook of Labor, Human Resources and Population Economics, 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_191-1
• Bögenhold, D. (2019). From hybrid entrepreneurs to entrepreneurial billionaires: Observations on the socioeconomic heterogeneity of self-employment. American Behavioral Scientist, 63(2), 129-146. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764218794231
• Brinkley, I. (2016). In search of the gig economy. The Work Foundation.
• Brym, R., & Lie, J. (2006). Sociology: Your compass for a new world. Cengage Learning.
• Bueno, S., Rodríguez-Baltanás, G., & Gallego, M. D. (2018). Coworking spaces: A New way of achieving productivity. Journal of Facilities Management, 16(4), 452-466. https://doi.org/10.1108/JFM-01-2018-0006
• Burke, A. (2015). Introduction: A freelancing and self-employment research agenda. International Review of Entrepreneurship, 13(1), 1-6.
• Burke, A., & Cowling, M. (2020). The role of freelancers in entrepreneurship and small business. Small Business Economics, 55, 389-392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-019-00239-5
• Cable. (2024). Broadband pricing. Retrieved February 05, 2024 from https://www.cable.co.uk/broadband/pricing/worldwidecomparison/#:~:text=The%20five%20countries%20with%20the,another%20in%20the%20Near%20East
• Chen, H., & Tian, Z. (2022). Environmental uncertainty, resource orchestration and digital transformation: A Fuzzy-Set QCA approach. Journal of Business Research, 139, 184-193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.09.048
• Cieślik, J., & Dvouletý, O. (2019). Segmentation of the Population of the Solo Self-employed. International Review of Entrepreneurship, 17(3).
• Coworker. (2024). Coworker spaces. Retrieved February 05, 2024 from https://www.coworker.com/
• Coworking Resources and Coworker, (2020). Global coworking growth study 2020. https://www.coworkingresources.org/blog/key-figures-coworking-growth
• Das, A., Rifat, G., Kumar, D., Habib, A., Ehtesham, A. Z. M., & Shamsur, M. (2018). A study on Bangladeshi IT freelancers: A survey. International Journal of Computer Applications, 182(32), 38-45. https://10.5120/ijca2018918256
• Diwanji, V. S. (2023). Fuzzy‐set qualitative comparative analysis in consumer research: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 47(6), 2767-2789. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijcs.12889
• Duşa, A., (2019). The truth table. QCA with R: A comprehensive resource, 139-158. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75668-4
• Economist Intelligence (EIU). (2022). Worldwide cost of living 2022 how soaring inflation has affected prices globally. https://www.eiu.com/n/campaigns/worldwide-cost-of-living-2022
• Enriquez, D. (2020). The freelance penalty: ıncome variation and job structure of high-skill freelance workers in the United States. Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta and Princeton University.
• Fiss, P. C. (2011). Building better causal theories: A Fuzzy set approach to typologies in organization research. Academy of Management Journal, 54(2), 393-420. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2011.60263120
• Gandini, A., & Gandini, A. (2016). Coworking: The freelance mode of organisation?. The reputation economy: Understanding knowledge work in digital society, 97-105. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-56107-7_7
• Gheorghe, M. (2015). State of freelancing in IT and future trends. International Journal of Economics and Management Engineering, 9(5), 1474-1478. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1338254
• Ghosh, K. (2023). Freelancers as protean careerists: Why and how career meta-competencies lead to career success. Human Resource Development International, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2023.2263673
• Gligor, D. M., Golgeci, I., Rego, C., Russo, I., Bozkurt, S., Pohlen, T., ... & Garg, V. (2022). Examining the use of FsQCA in B2B marketing research: Benefits, current state and agenda for future research. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 37(7), 1542-1552. https://doi.org/10.1108/JBIM-09-2020-0436
• Gligor, D., & Bozkurt, S. (2020). FsQCA versus regression: The context of customer engagement. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 52, 101929. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2019.101929
• Gonçalves, T. C., & Gaio, C. (2023). Corporate sustainability disclosure and media visibility: Mixed method evidence from the tourism sector. Journal of Business Research, 155, 113447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.113447
• Greenhaus, J. H., Callanan, G. A., & DiRenzo, M. (2008). A boundaryless perspective on careers. Handbook of Organizational Behavior, 1, 277-299. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781849200448.n16
• Günbayı, I., & Sorm, S. (2018). Social paradigms in guiding social research design: The functional, ınterpretive, radical humanist and radical structural paradigms. Online Submission, 9(2), 57-76.
• Heikkilä, J. (2021). Making a living on upwork. Vaasan Ammattıkorkeakoulu Liiketalous. http://www.theseus.fi/handle/10024/493604
• Hilbert, M. R., & Lu, K. (2020). The online job market trace in Latin America and The Caribbean. United Nations. https://hdl.handle.net/11362/45892
• Howell, T. (2022). Coworking spaces: An overview and research agenda. Research Policy, 51(2), 104447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2021.104447
• ITU. (2012). Regulating broadband prices broadband series. Regulatory & Market Environment. https://www.itu.int/pub/D-PREF-BB.RPT4
• Keith Neal, P. W. (2022). The ‘cost of living crisis’. Journal of Public Health, 44(3), 475-476. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdac080
• Kirkpatrick, I., & Hoque, K. (2006). A retreat from permanent employment? Accounting for the rise of professional agency work in UK public services. Work, Employment and Society, 20(4), 649-666. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017006069806
• Kitching, J. (2015). Tracking UK freelance workforce trends 1992-2015. International Review of Entrepreneurship, 13(1), 21-34.
• Kovalainen, A. (2017). Alustatalous Ja Työn Murros. Työn Tuuli, 2(2017), 2343-2055.
• Liu, T., Xue, D., Fang, Y., & Zhang, K. (2023). The impact of differentiated development of the digital economy on employment quality—An empirical analysis based on provincial data from China. Sustainability, 15(19), 14176. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914176
• Lokshin, M., Sajaia, Z., & Torre, I. (2023). Who suffers the most from the cost-of-living crisis?. Policy Research Working Paper Series 10377, The World Bank. https://ideas.repec.org/p/wbk/wbrwps/10377.html
• Ma, X., & Yang, S. (2018). Airtasker and the Australian freelance workers: The reflections on the gig economy. International Journal of Advanced and Applied Sciences, 5(7), 35-45. https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2018.07.005
• Mettler, A., & Williams, A. D. (2011). The rise of the micro-multinational: How freelancers and technology-savvy start-ups are driving growth, jobs and ınnovation. Lisbon Council Policy Brief, 5(3), 1-28.
• Midoglu, C., Wimmer, L., Lutu, A., Alay, Ö., & Griwodz, C. (2018). MONROE-Nettest: A configurable tool for dissecting speed measurements in mobile broadband networks. IEEE INFOCOM 2018-IEEE Conference on Computer Communications Workshops (INFOCOM WKSHPS) (pp. 342-347). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/INFCOMW.2018.8406836
• Milasi, S., & Mitra, A. (2022). Solo self-employment and lack of paid employment: an occupational perspective across EU countries. https://www.ilo.org/employment/Whatwedo/Projects/building-partnerships-on-the-future-of-work/WCMS_837900/lang--en/index.htm
• Miller, P. (2020). Freelance workers—Experiencing a career outside an organization. Qualitative Sociology Review, 16(4), 90-104. http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/1733-8077.16.4.06
• Moriset, B. (2013). Building new places of the creative economy. The Rise of coworking spaces. https://doi.org/10.4000/tem.3868
• Muñoz, P., & Kibler, E. (2016). Institutional complexity and social entrepreneurship: A Fuzzy-set approach. Journal of Business Research, 69(4), 1314-1318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.10.098
• Nawaz, Z., Zhang, J., Mansoor, R., Hafeez, S., & Ilmudeen, A. (2020). Freelancers as part-time employees: Dimensions of FVP and FJS in e-lancing platforms. South Asian Journal of Human Resources Management, 7(1), 34-60. https://doi.org/10.1177/2322093720908453
• OECD. (2016). OECD Factbook 2015-2016: Economic, environmental and social statistics. OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/factbook-2015-en
• OECD. (2024). Self employment rate. Retrieved February 05, 2024 from https://data.oecd.org/emp/self-employment-rate.htm
• Osdoro. (2022). 2022-2023 Osdoro coworking space report. https://osdoro.com/coworking-space-market-report-2022-2023/ Papatheodorou, A., & Pappas, N. (2017). Economic recession, job vulnerability, and tourism decision making: A qualitative comparative analysis. Journal of Travel Research, 56(5), 663-677. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287516651334
• Pappas, I. O., & Woodside, A. G. (2021). Fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA): Guidelines for research practice in ınformation systems and marketing. International. Journal of Information Management, 58, 102310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2021.102310
• Pilat, D. (2003). ICT and economic growth: Evidence from OECD countries, industries and firms. OECD Publications. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264101296-en
• Raabe, B., Frese, M., & Beehr, T. A. (2007). Action regulation theory and career self-management. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 70(2), 297-311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2006.10.005 Ragin, C. (2007). Chapter 5: Qualitative comparative analysis using Fuzzy Sets (Fsqca). Forthcoming in N. Rihoux & C. Ragin (Ed.), Configurational comparative analysis. Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452226569 Ragin, C. C. (2009). Redesigning social inquiry: Fuzzy sets and beyond. University of Chicago Press.
• Ragin, C. C. (2014). The comparative method: Moving beyond qualitative and quantitative strategies. Univ of California Press.
• Ragin, C. C., & Davey, S. (2014). fs/QCA, Fuzzy-set/qualitative comparative analysis, Version 2.5. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona.
• Rasoolimanesh, S. M., Ringle, C. M., Sarstedt, M., & Olya, H. (2021). The combined use of symmetric and asymmetric approaches: Partial least squares-structural equation modeling and fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 33(5), 1571-1592.
• Rihoux, B., & Ragin, C. C. (2008). Configurational comparative methods: Qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) and related techniques. Sage Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452226569
• Roth, K., & Mirchandani, N. (2016). The rise of co-working: A growing workplace movement. Corporate Real Estate Journal, 5(4), 314-328.
• Schneider, C. Q., & Wagemann, C. (2012). Set-theoretic methods for the social sciences: A guide to qualitative comparative analysis. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139004244
• Schneider, M. R., Schulze-Bentrop, C., & Paunescu, M. (2010). Mapping the institutional capital of high-tech firms: A fuzzy-set analysis of capitalist variety and export performance. Journal of International Business Studies, 41, 246-266. https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2009.36
• Sedita, S. R., Blasi, S., & Yang, J. (2022). The cultural dimensions of sustainable development: A cross‐country configurational analysis. Sustainable Development, 30(6), 1838-1849. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.2351
• Shevchuk, A., & Strebkov, D. (2021). Freelance platform work in the Russian Federation: 2009-2019 (No. 38). ILO Working Paper.
• Staff Reporter, (2022). How can you get cheaper or social tariff broadband?. The Freelance Informer. https://www.freelanceinformer.com/news/how-can-you-get-cheaper-or-social-tariff-broadband/
• Tabassum, D. N. F. (2014). Burgeoning of remote jobs in developing countries–Special reference to Asia Pacific region. International Journal of Research Publication’s, 4.
• Thabassum, N. F. (2013). A study on the freelancing remote job websites. International Journal of Business Research and Management, 4(1), 42-50.
• Thiele, N., (2023). Broadband price increase for 2023, explained. Switchcraft. https://www.switchcraft.co.uk/broadband/deals/broadband-contract-price-rises-explained/ Tipalti. (2024). The Freelance index. Retrieved February 05, 2024 from https://tipalti.com/the-freelance-index/#countries-data-table
• Väätäjä, H. (2012). Mobile work efficiency: Balancing between benefits, costs and sacrifices. International Journal of Mobile Human Computer Interaction (IJMHCI), 4(2), 67-87.
• Van den Born, A., & Van Witteloostuijn, A. (2013). Drivers of freelance career success. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 34(1), 24-46. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1786
• van der Zwan, P., Hessels, J., & Burger, M. (2020). Happy free willies? Investigating the relationship between freelancing and subjective well-being. Small Business Economics, 55, 475-491. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-019-00246-6
• Van Stel, A., & de Vries, N. (2015). The economic value of different types of solo self-employed: A review. International Review of Entrepreneurship, 13(2), 73-80.
• Vis, B. (2012). The comparative advantages of Fsqca and regression analysis for moderately large-n analyses. Sociological Methods & Research, 41(1), 168-198. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124112442142
• Waitt, G., & Gibson, C. (2009). Creative small cities: Rethinking the creative economy in place. Urban Studies, 46(5-6), 1223-1246. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098009103862
• World Population Review. (2024). Country rakings cheapest countries to live in. Retrieved February 05, 2024 from https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/cheapest-countries-to-live-in
• World Population Review. (2024). Country rankings internet speeds by country. Retrieved February 05, 2024 from https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/internet-speeds-by-country
• World Population Review. (2024). Internet speeds by country. Retrieved February 05, 2024 from https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/internet-speeds-by-country Zhao, F., Prentice, C., Wallis, J., Patel, A., & Waxin, M. F. (2020). An integrative study of the ımplications of the rise of coworking spaces in smart cities. Entrepreneurship and Sustainability Issues. https://doi.org/10.9770/jesi.2020.8.2(28)
• Лимар, В. В., & Дем’янова, Ю. О. (2020). Тенденції трансформації ринку праці в умовах формування цифрової економіки. https://doi.org/10.31558/2307-2318.2020.1.14
• U.S. Census Bureau. (2024). Employment status, selected economic characteristics. Retrieved February 05, 2024 from https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDP5Y2020.DP03?q=employment%20status