Cognitive Flexibility and Parental Stress: Multiple Mediator Role of Parental Self-efficacy and Rumination

Year 2025, Volume: 58 Issue: 3, 1305 - 1344, 15.12.2025

Gökçen Dalkılınç , Berkan Can Kara , Seda Nur Güven , Fulya Turk

Abstract

Parenthood is a dynamic and stressful life phase in which mothers and fathers take on multidimensional roles by adapting to the developmental needs of their children, and which requires constant change and restructuring or adaptation in cognitive, emotional and social terms. Parents may find both their children and themselves in stressful and challenging lives in each new period. For this reason, it is important to examine in detail the stress experienced by parents of children in different age groups and the factors related to stress during the process of raising their children. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the parenting stress and related variables of mothers and fathers of children in adolescence and pre-adolescence. A total of 403 parents, 338 mothers (83.87%) and 65 fathers (16.13%) of children between the ages of 10-18, participated in the study conducted based on the relational screening model. Data were collected using the Personal Information Form, Parental Stress Scale, Parental Competence Scale, Ruminative Thinking Style Scale and Cognitive Flexibility Scale. The data obtained were analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The findings revealed that parenting competence and rumination had parallel mediating roles in the relationship between cognitive flexibility and parenting stress.

Keywords

Cognitive flexibility , Parental stress , Parental self-efficacy , Rumination

Bilişsel Esneklik ve Ebeveyn Stresi: Ebeveyn Yetkinliğinin ve Ruminasyonun Çoklu Aracılık Rolü

Abstract

Ebeveynlik, anne ve babanın çocuğunun gelişimsel ihtiyaçlarına uyum sağlayarak çok boyutlu roller üstlendiği, bilişsel, duygusal ve sosyal açıdan sürekli değişim ve yeniden yapılanma ya da uyum gerektiren dinamik ve stresli bir yaşam evresidir. Ebeveynler, her yeni gelişim döneminde hem çocuklarını hem de kendilerini stresli ve zorlu yaşantılar içinde bulabilmektedirler. Bu sebeple, farklı yaş gruplarında çocuğu olan ebeveynlerin çocuklarını yetiştirme sürecinde yaşadıkları stresin ve stresle ilişkili faktörlerin detaylı olarak incelenmesi önemli görülmektedir. Dolayısıyla, bu araştırmada ergenlik ve ön ergenlik döneminde çocuğu bulunan anne ve babaların ebeveyn stresleri ve ilgili değişkenlerin incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. İlişkisel tarama modeline dayalı olarak yürütülen çalışmaya, 10-18 yaş aralığında çocuğa sahip 338 anne (%83.87) ve 65 baba (%16.13) olmak üzere toplam 403 ebeveyn katılmıştır. Veriler, Kişisel Bilgi Formu, Ebeveyn Stresi Ölçeği, Ebeveyn Yetkinlik Ölçeği, Ruminatif Düşünme Biçimi Ölçeği ve Bilişsel Esneklik Ölçeği kullanılarak toplanmıştır. Araştırma verileri, Yapısal Eşitlik Modellemesi (YEM) kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Bulgular, bilişsel esneklik ile ebeveynlik stresi arasındaki ilişkide ebeveynlik yetkinliği ve ruminasyonun paralel aracılık rolleri olduğunu ortaya koymuştur.

Keywords

Bilişsel esneklik , Ebeveyn stresi , Ebeveyn yetkinliği , Ruminasyon

References

• Abidin, R. (1990). Introduction to the special issue: The stresses of parenting. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 19(4), 298- 301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp1904_1
• Altunkol, F. (2011). Üniversite öğrencilerinin bilişsel esneklikleri ile algılanan stres düzeyleri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi [The analysis of the relation between cognitive flexibility and perceived stress levels of college students] (Thesis No.299899) [Master’s thesis, Çukurova University]. Counsil of Higher Education Thesis Center. https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/giris.jsp
• Anayurt, A. (2017). Duygu düzenleme ile erken dönem uyumsuz şemalar, bilişsel esneklik ve ruminasyon arasındaki ilişkilerin incelenmesi [Investigation of relations between early maladaptive schemas, cognitive flexibility and rumination with emotion regulation] (Thesis No. 468230) [Master's thesis, Ankara Univeristy]. Counsil of Higher Education Thesis Center. https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/giris.jsp
• Arıcı Özcan, N., & Arslan, R. (2018). Ergen annelerine uygulanan ebeveyn stresini yönetme programı’nın etkililiği [The effectiveness of parent stress management program to mothers with adolescent child]. Sakarya University Journal of Education, 8(2), 40-59. https://doi.org/10.19126/suje.349339
• Aslan, Ş., & Türk, F. (2022). Bilişsel esneklik ve psikolojik esneklik kavramlarının karşılaştırılması [Comparison of concepts of cognitive flexibility and psychological flexibility]. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar, 14(1), 119-130. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/1710158
• Atasayar, M., İlyas, A., Girgin, N., Uygun, H. M., & Çevik, İ. (2023). Yapılandırılmış aile eğitim programının covid-19 sürecinde ebeveynlerin stres ve yetkinlik düzeylerine etkisi [The effect of structured family education program on parents' stress and competence levels in the Covid-19 process]. MAUN Journal of Education, 3(2), 150-170. https://doi.org/10.60107/maunef.1273542
• Ateş, B. & Sağar, M. E. (2021). Üniversite öğrencilerinde öz-yeterliğin yordayıcısı olarak bilişsel esneklik, duygu düzenleme beceleri ve psikolojik sağlamlık [Cognitive flexibility, emotion regulation skills and resilience as predictors of self-efficacy in university students]. İstanbul Aydın Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 13(3), 679-695.https://iaud.aydin.edu.tr/wpcontent/uploads/2021/06/10.17932IAU.IAUSBD.2021.0212021.133.pdf
• Avcı, Ş., Fener, M. T., & Mutlu, A. (2021). Serebral palsili çocukların fonksiyonel seviyeleri ve ekstremite dağılımlarının ebeveynlik stres düzeyine etkileri [The effects of functional levels and extremity distributions of children with cerebral palsy on parental stress level]. Aydın Sağlık Dergisi, 7(2), 123-140. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/1521612
• Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (1988). On the evaluation of structural equation models. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 16(1), 74–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02723327
• Baltaş, Z., & Baltaş, A. (2008). Stres ve başa çıkma yolları [Stress and ways of coping]. (24. Baskı). Remzi Kitabevi
• Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37(2), 122. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.37.2.122
• Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W.H. Freeman and Company.
• Bandura, A. (2006). Toward a psychology of human agency. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1(2), 164-180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00011.x
• Berry, J. O., & Jones, W. H. (1995). The parental stress scale: Initial psychometric evidence. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 12(3), 463–472. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407595123009
• Brinker, J. K., & Dozois, D. J. A. (2009). Ruminative thought style and depressed mood. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20542
• Bloomfield, L., & Kendall, S. (2012). Parenting self-efficacy, parenting stress and child behaviour before and after a parenting programme. Primary Health Care Research & Development, 13(4), 364-372. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1463423612000060
• Bohne, A., Høifødt, R. S., Nordahl, D., Moe, V., Landsem, I. P., Vannebo, U. T., Holstad, S. L., Wang, C. E. A., & Pfuhl, G. (2025). Transaction of parental cognition, stress and depressive symptoms, and infant regulatory challenges. Infant Mental Health Journal, 46(2), 199-214. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.22160
• Braun, E. (2023). The relationship between parental self-efficacy and unconditional self-acceptance, cognitive flexibility, and self-forgiveness across different parental stages [Doctoral dissertation, Hofstra University]. Proquest Dissertations and Theses.
• Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2018). Sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı [Handbook of Data Analysis for the Social Sciences]. Pegem Akademi.
• Caprara, G. V., Regalia, C., Scabini, E., Barbaranelli, C., & Bandura, A. (2004). Assessment of perceived parental self-efficacy. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 20(4), 247–255. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.20.4.247
• Coleman, P. K., & Karraker, K. H. (1998). Self-efficacy and parenting quality: findings and future applications. Developmental Review, 18, 30–46. https://doi.org/10.1006/drev.1997.0448
• Conway M., Mendelson M., Giannopoulos C., Csank, P. A. R., & Holm S. L. (2004). Childhood and adult sexual abuse, rumination on sadness, and dysphoria. Child Abuse Neglect, 28(4),393–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.05.004
• Coşkun, R., Altunışık, R., Bayraktaroğlu, S., & Yıldırım, E. (2017). Sosyal bilimlerde araştırma yöntemleri: SPSS uygulamalı [Research methods in social sciences: SPSS applications] (10. baskı). Sakarya Yayıncılık.
• Crnic, K., & Ross, E. (2017). Parenting stress and parental efficacy. In K. Deater-Deckard, & R. Panneton (Eds.), Parental Stress and early childhood development (pp. 263–284). Springer.
• Çelik, M. & Buğa, A. (2022). Evli bireylerde bilişsel esneklik ve evlilik çöz-yetkinliği arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi [Investigation of the relationship between cognitve flexiblity and marital self-efficacy in married individuals]. Disiplinlerarası Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6(13), 395-407. https://doi.org/10.57135/jier.1192803
• Çelikkaleli, Ö. (2014). The relation between cognitive flexibility and academic, social and emotional self-efficacy beliefs among adolescents. Education & Science/Egitim ve Bilim, 39(176). https://doi.org/10.15390/EB.2014.3467
• Demir, S. & Gündüz, B. (2014). Ebeveyn yekinlik ölçeği’nin uyarlanması: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışmaları [Adaptation of the parental self-efficacy sclae: The study of validity and reliability]. Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 11(25), 309-322. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12483/2189
• Demirci, O. O., & Güneri, E. (2020). Bilişsel esnekliğin bilişsel duygu düzenleme üzerindeki etkisi [The effects of cognitive flexibility on cognitive emotional regulation]. Uludağ University Faculty of Arts and Sciences Journal of Social Sciences, 21(39), 651-684. https://doi.org/10.21550/sosbilder.624377
• Demirtaş, A. S. (2020). Cognitive flexibility and mental well-being in Turkish adolescents: The mediating role of academic, social and emotional self-efficacy. Anales de Psicología/annals of Psychology, 36(1), 111-121. http://dx.doi.org/10.6018/analesps.36.1.336681
• Dennis, J. P., & Vander Wal, J. S. (2010). The cognitive flexibility inventory: Instrument development and estimates of reliability and validity. Cognitive therapy and research, 34(3), 241-253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-009-9276-4
• Doğan, B.G., & Turp, H. H. (2022). A study on parents' emotion regulation skills, selfawareness, and cognitive flexibility levels. International Journal of Contemporary Educational Research, 9(4), 785-796. https://doi.org/10.33200/ijcer.1096498
• Ekşi, H., Kemahlı, H. P., & Abdullayev, K. (2017). Aile stresörleri ile başa çıkma yöntemleri ölçeği geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması [Validity and reliability study of family stressors coping strategies scale, Sözlü Sunumu].1st International Symposium on Social Sciences and Educational Research, Necmettin Erbakan Univeristy, Konya.
• Esen, B., K, Özcan, H. D, & Sezgin, M. (2017). High school students’cognitive flexibility is predicted by self-efficacy and achievement. European Journal of Education Studies, 3,143-151. http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.244470
• Eskin, M. (2014). Sorun çözme terapisi [Problem solving therapy] (3. Baskı). Ankara, Hekimler Yayın Birliği.
• Fang, Y., Luo, J., Boele, M., Windhorst, D., van Grieken, A., & Raat, H. (2024). Parent, child, and situational factors associated with parenting stress: a systematic review. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 33(6), 1687-1705. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-022-02027-1
• Fisher, R. S., Perez, M. N., Basile, N. L., Pepper, M., Gamwell, K. L., McNall-Knapp, R., Carter, J. C., Mayes, S., Chaney, J. M., & Mullins, L. L. (2021). Childhood cancer physical symptom burden and parent distress: The role of parent rumination. Clinical Practice in Pediatric Psychology, 9(3), 251-260. https://doi.org/10.1037/cpp0000403
• Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151312
• Genet, J. J., Malooly, A. M., & Siemer, M. (2013). Flexibility is not always adaptive: Affective flexibility and inflexibility predict rumination use in everyday life. Cognition and Emotion, 27(4), 685-695. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.733351
• George, D., & Mallery, M. (2010). SPSS for windows step by step: A simple guide and reference, 17.0 update (10a ed.). Pearson.
• Gerdes, A., Hoza, B., Arnold, L., Pelham, W., Swanson, J., Wigal, T., & Jenson, P. (2007). Maternal depressive symptomatology and parenting behavior: exploration of possible mediators. Journal of Abnormal Child Psycholology, 35, 705-713. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9134-3
• Gharati, M., Kashani Vahid, L., & Asaseh, M. (2024). Develop a structural model of happiness of mothers with children with intellectual disabilities based on psychological capital with the mediation of cognitive flexibility and emotional regulation. Journal of Psychological Science, 23(136), 785-800. http://dx.doi.org/10.52547/JPS.23.136.785
• Girard, C. R. (2022). The Relationship Between Cognitive Flexibility and Rumination: From Laboratory to Daily Life [Master's thesis, Northern Michigan University]. https://commons.nmu.edu/theses/718/
• Glatz, T., & Buchanan, C. M. (2015). Over-time associations among parental self-efficacy, promotive parenting practices, and adolescents’ externalizing behaviors. Journal of Family Psychology, 29, 427–437. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000076
• Gniewosz, G. (2023). A mother’s perspective: Perceived stress and parental self-efficacy during the COVID-19 pandemic. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 20(4), 666-693. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2022.2120464
• Gördesli, M. A., & Aydın Sünbül, Z. (2021). Ebeveyn stres ölçeği türkçe formunun geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması [The parenting stress scale: the validity and the reliability study]. Sakarya University Journal of Education, 11(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.19126/suje.866101
• Greene, T. C. (2020). Pathways to coping with extreme events: A study of the relation between cognitive flexibility and four types of rumination [Master's thesis, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte]. Proquest Dissertations and Theses.
• Gülüm, V., & Dağ, İ. (2013). Yetişkin bağlanma örüntüleri ile psikopatoloji belirtileri arasındaki ilişkide bilişsel özelliklerin aracı rolü: Bilişsel esneklik [The mediator role of cognitive features in the relationship between adult attachment patterns and psychopathology symptoms: Cognitive flexibility]. Turkish Journal of Psychiatry, 24(4). 240-247. https://www.turkpsikiyatri.com/PDF/C24S4/3_13009_.Yeti%C5%9Fkin%20baglanma.pdf
• Gürbüz, S., & Şahin, F. (2014). Sosyal bilimlerde araştırma yöntemleri: Felsefe, yöntem, analiz [Research methods in social sciences: Philosophy, method, analysis]. (1. baskı). Seçkin Yayıncılık.
• Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Tatham, R. L., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis. In Multivariate data analysis (pp. 785-785). Upper Saddle River.
• Håkansson, U., Watten, R. G., Söderström, K. & Øie, M. G. (2019). The association between executive functioning and parental stress and psychological distress is mediated by parental reflective functioning in mothers with substance use disorder. Stress and Health, 35(4), 407-420. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2868
• Işık, E. (2022). Covid-19 sürecinde babaların ebeveynlik düzeylerindeki değişimin incelenmesi [Investigation of the Changing in Parenting Levels of Fathers in the Covid-19 Process]. Fırat University Journal Of Social Sciences, 33(1), 289-302. https://doi.org/10.18069/firatsbed.1192329
• Junker, F. K., Pedersen, V. B., & Furset, I. I. (2021). A Longitudinal Follow-up Study of Cognitive Flexibility and Rumination in First Episode Major Depression [Master's thesis, The University of Bergen]. Bergen Open Research Archive.
• Karasar, N. (2017). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemi [Scientific research method] (31. baskı). Nobel Yayıncılık.
• Karagöz, H. K., & Bilge, F. (2025). Parenting stress in women with adolescent children. Journal of Faculty of Educational Sciences, 58(1). https://doi.org/10.30964/auebfd.1544014
• Karatepe, H. T., Yavuz, F., & Candan, F. (2013). Ruminatif düşünme biçimi ölçeği’nin Türkçe geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması [Turkish adaptation, validity and reliability of ruminative thought style questionnaire] (Thesis No. 271757) [Specialization thesis, Bakırköy Prof. Mazhar Osman Training and Research Hospital for Mental Health and Neurological Disorders]. Council of Higher Education Thesis Center. https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/giris.jsp
• Kawafha, M. M. (2018). Parental stress in the neonate intensive care unit and its association with parental and infant characteristics. Journal of Neonatal Nursing, 24(5), 266-272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnn.2018.05.005
• Kim, H. J., & Kim, J. M. (2015). Cognitive behavioral therapy for improving parenting efficacy of married immigrant women. Journal of Families and Better Life, 33(2), 135-148. https://doi.org/10.7466/JKHMA.2015.33.2.135
• Kishimoto, T., Liu, S., Zhang, L., & Li, S. (2023). How do autistic severity and family functioning influence parental stress in caregivers of children with autism spectrum disorder in China? The important role of parental self-efficacy. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 956637. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.956637
• Kwok, S., & Wong, D. (2000). Mental health of parents with young children in Hong Kong: The roles of parenting stress and parenting self-efficacy. Child & Family Social Work, 5(1), 57–65. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2206.2000.00138.x
• Lazarus, R. S., & Eriksen, C. W. (1952). Effects of failure stress upon skilled performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 43(2), 100-105. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0056614
• LeMoult, J., & Gotlib, I. (2019). Depression: A cognitive perspective. Clinical Psychology Reveiew, 69, 51–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.06.008
• Lerner, R. M., & Steinberg, L. (2009). Handbook of adolescent psychology: Individual bases of adolescent development. John Wiley & Sons.
• MacCallum, R. C., Browne, M. W., & Sugawara, H. M. (1996). Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling. Psychological Methods, 1(2), 130–149. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.1.2.130
• Martin, M. M., & Anderson, C. M. (1996). Communication traits: A crossgenerational investigation. Communication Research Reports, 13(1), 58-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824099609362071
• Martin, M. M., & Rubin, R. B. (1995). A new measure of cognitive flexibility. Psychological Reports, 76(2), 623-626. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1995.76.2.623
• Mishra, A., & Singh, P. (2024). Effect of emotional intelligence and cognitive flexibility on entrepreneurial intention: mediating role of entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies, 16(3), 551-575. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEEE-05-2022-0142
• Moghaddam, F. Y., Hosseinian. S., Emami. F., & Azad., N. (2023). The moderating role of cognitive flexibility in the relationship between parental stress and maternal parenting self-efficacy perceived. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 15(4), 29-38. https://doi.org/10.22075/jcp.2024.33031.2831
• Montigny, F., & Lacharité, C. (2005). Perceived parental efficacy: Concept analysis. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 49(4), 387-396. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2004.03302.x
• Moreira, H., & Canavarro, M. C. (2018). The association between self-critical rumination and parenting stress: The mediating role of mindful parenting. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27, 2265-2275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1072-x
• Nolen-Hoeksema S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(5), 400–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x
• Nomaguchi, K. M. (2012). Parenthood and psychological well-being: Clarifying the role of child age and parent–child relationship quality. Social Science Research, 41(2), 489-498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.08.001
• Östberg, M., & Hagekull, B. (2000). A structural modeling approach to the understanding of parenting stress. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29(4), 615-625. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424JCCP2904_13
• Özcan, N. (2022). Algılanan stres ile bilişsel esnekliğin yürütücü işlevler açısından incelenmesi [Examination of perceived stress and cognitive flexibility in terms of executive functions] (Thesis No. 712762) [Master's thesis, Atatürk University, Erzurum]. Council of Higher Education Thesis Center. https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/giris.jsp
• Özyazıcı, K. & Yaray, Y. (2022). Ebeveynlik stresinin çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi [Examining parenting stress in terms of various variables]. Sivas Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 1(2), 50-59. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/cebed
• Park, I. Y., Gago, C., Grafft, N., Lo, B. K., & Davison, K. K. (2025). Parent empowerment as a buffer between perceived stress and parenting self-efficacy in immigrant parents. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 27(2), 268-276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-024-01659-6
• Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879–891. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879
• Pulopulos, M. M., Hoorelbeke, K., Vandenbroucke, S., Van Durme, K., Hooley, J. M., & De Raedt, R. (2023). The interplay between self-esteem, expectancy, cognitive control, rumination, and the experience of stress: a network analysis. Current Psychology, 42(18), 15403-15411. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-02840-6
• Roy, R. N., Schumm, W. R., & Britt, S. L. (2014). Theoretical perspectives. In Transition to parenthood (pp. 27-47). Springer.
• Saasati, N., Youefi, Z., & Gholparvar, M. (2020). The effectiveness of the systematic training for effective parenting (STEP) on the quality of parent-child relationships, parenting self-efficacy, and cognitive flexibility in adolescent mothers. Psychological Sciences, 94(19), 1319-1330. https://dor.isc.ac/dor/20.1001.1.17357462.1399.19.94.4.8
• Satıcı, S. A. (2016). Psychological vulnerability, resilience, and subjective well-being: The mediating role of hope. Personality and Individual Differences, 102, 68–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.06.057
• Sladek, M. R., Doane, L. D., & Breitenstein, R. S. (2020). Daily rumination about stress, sleep, and diurnal cortisol activity. Cognition and Emotion, 34(2), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1601617
• Smith, E. D. (2017). The role of parental self-efficacy, hardiness, and parenting stress in predicting parenting behaviors [Doctoral dissertation, The University of Southern Mississippi]. https://aquila.usm.edu/dissertations/1452
• Spiro, R. J., Feltovich, P. J., Jacobson, M. J., & Coulson, R. L. (1991). Cognitive flexibility, constructivism, and hypertexfu random access ınstruction for advanced knowledge acquisition. Educational Technology, 31(5), 25-33. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/200772846_Cognitive_Flexibility_Constructivism_and_Hypertext_Random_Access_Instruction_for_Advanced_Knowledge_Acquisition_in_Ill-Structured_Domains
• Söğüt, R. (2019). Üstün yetenekli olan ve olmayan çocukların anne babalarının ebeveynliğe ilişkin yeterlik algıları ile stres düzeylerinin karşılaştırılması [Comparison of stress level and perceptions of competence related to parenting of parents with gifted and non-gifted children] (Thesis No. 573534) [Mster’s thesis, Gaziantep University]. Council of Higher Education Thesis Center. https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/giris.jsp
• Söğüt, M., & Köse, A. (2023). The Exploration of Maternal Self-Efficacy: The Role of Childhood Traumas, Adult Attachment and Cognitive Flexibility. Journal of Ahmet Keleşoğlu Education Faculty, 5(3), 1438-1450. https://doi.org/10.38151/akef.2023.119
• Strauss, K., Servadio, M., Valeri, G., Casula, L., Vicari, S., & Fava, L. (2024). Association between child behavioural problems and parenting stress in autism spectrum disorders: The role of parenting self-efficacy. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 70(1), 49-58. https://doi.org/10.1080/20473869.2022.2052417
• Sugiana, S., Sasmiati, S., & Yulistia, A. (2020). Relationship between parenting self efficacy and parenting stress on parents to support early children playing at home. Indonesian Journal of Early Childhood Education Studies, 9(2), 124-129. http://dx.doi.org/10.15294/ijeces.v9i2.42212
• Sung, K. M. (2013). Development of a scale to measure stress in parents of adolescents. Journal of Korean Academy of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 22(3), 216-229. https://doi.org/10.12934/jkpmhn.2013.22.3.216
• Taylor, S. E., & Stanton, A. L. (2007). Coping resources, coping processes, and mental health. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3(1), 377-401. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091520
• Tiryaki, A. (2014). Stres: aşamaları, kaynakları, sonuçları ve mücadele teknikleri [Stress: Stages, reasons, results and fı̇ghtı̇ng technı̇ques] (Thesis No. 379160) [Master's thesis, Beykent University]. Council of Higher Education Thesis Center. https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/giris.jsp
• Vondra, J., & Belsky, J. (1993). Developmental origins of parenting: personality and relationship factors. In T. Luster & L. Okagaki (Eds.), Parenting: An ecological perspective (pp. 1-34). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
• Ward, K. P., & Lee, S. J. (2020). Mothers’ and fathers’ parenting stress, responsiveness, and child wellbeing among low-income families. Children and Youth Services Review, 116, 105218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105218
• Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. Psychological Bulletin, 134(2), 163-206. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163
• Yaakov, O. B., Shlomo, S. B., & Keini, N. L. (2023). Parental stress among parents of young children-the contribution of parental self-awareness, attachment orientation, quality of couple relationship and child's temperament. Current Psychology, 42(16), 13669-13679. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-02721-y
• Zhang, G., Feng, W., Zhao, L., Zhao, X., & Li, T. (2024). The association between physical activity, self-efficacy, stress self-management and mental health among adolescents. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 5488. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-56149-4