Problematic Technology Use and Peer Relationships in Preschool Children

Abstract

This study was conducted using a relational survey model to examine the relationship between problematic technology use and peer relationships in preschool children. The study group consisted of 182 children aged 4-6 years who were attending independent preschools affiliated with the Ministry of National Education in the province of Karaman, selected through a convenience sampling method. Data collection tools included a personal information form, the Problematic Technology Use Scale for Children, and the Peer Relationships in Preschool Scale (Teacher Form). Parametric techniques were used to analyze the data due to the normal distribution of variables. The results of the study showed that the peer relationships of the children in the study group were positively oriented, their problematic technology use was at a moderate level, and no significant relationship was found between the subdimensions of the peer relationships scale and the subdimensions of the problematic technology use scale for children.

Keywords

• Peer relationships
• preschool
• problematic technology use

Okul Öncesi Dönem Çocuklarda Problemli Teknoloji Kullanımı ve Akran İlişkileri

Öz

Bu çalışma; okul öncesi çocuklarda problemli teknoloji kullanımı ile akran ilişkileri arasındaki ilişkiyi incelemek amacıyla ilişkisel tarama modeli ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Çalışma grubu; kolay örnekleme yöntemi ile belirlenen Karaman ilinde Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı'na bağlı bağımsız anaokullarında öğrenim görmekte olan 4-6 yaş arası 182 çocuktan oluşmaktadır. Araştırmada veri toplama araçları olarak kişisel bilgi formu, Çocuklar İçin Problemli Teknoloji Kullanımı Ölçeği ve Okul Öncesinde Akran İlişkileri Ölçeği (Öğretmen Formu) kullanılmıştır. Verilerin analizinde, normal dağılım göstermesi nedeniyle parametrik teknikler kullanılmıştır. Araştırma sonucunda çalışma grubundaki çocukların arkadaşlarıyla olan ilişkilerinin pozitif yönlü olduğu; problemli teknoloji kullanımlarının orta düzeyde olduğu; çocukların okul öncesinde akran ilişkileri ölçeği alt boyutları ile çocuklar için problemli teknoloji kullanımı alt boyutları arasında herhangi bir anlamlı ilişki olmadığı görülmüştür.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• akran ilişkileri
• okul öncesi
• problemli teknoloji kullanımı

References

1. Aarsand, P. (2007). Consumption of computer games. In B. Tufte & K. Ekström (Eds.). Children, Media & Consumption: On the Front Edge (pp. 47-62 The International Clearinghouse on Children, Youth and Media.
2. Aarsand, P. (2010). Young boys playing digital games: from console to the playground. Nordic Journal of Digital Literacy, 5, 38–54. https://doi.org/10.18261/ISSN1891-943X-2010-01-04
3. Arnott, L. (2016). An ecological exploration of young children's digital play: framing children's social experiences with technologies in early childhood. Early Years, 36, 271–288. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429444418
4. Bağatarhan, T. (2023). Okul öncesi dönem çocuklarında dijital oyun bağımlılık eğilimi ve problem davranışlar. E-Uluslararası Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 14(5), 179-193. https://doi.org/10.19160/e-ijer.1342294
5. Balcı, A., & Kishalı, Z. (2024). Okul öncesi dönemde akran zorbalığı: okul öncesi öğretmenlerinin görüşleri üzerine bir inceleme. Bayburt Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 19(42), 1954-1985. https://doi.org/10.35675/befdergi.1385238
6. Batmaz, O., & Güler, T. (2022). Okul öncesi ve ilkokul öğrencilerinin salgın döneminde ve öncesinde teknolojik araç kullanmalarına ilişkin ebeveyn görüşleri. Nevşehir Hacı Bektaş Veli Üniversitesi SBE Dergisi, 12(4), 1978-1994. https://doi.org/10.30783/nevsosbilen.1074156
7. Bedford, R., Saez de Urabain, I. R., Cheung, C. H., Karmiloff-Smith, A., & Smith, T. J. (2016). Toddlers’ fine motor milestone achievement is associated with early touchscreen scrolling. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1108. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01108
8. Berndt, T. J., & McCandless, M. A. (2009). Methods for investigating children’s relationships with friends. In K. H. Rubin, W. M. Bukowski, & B. Laursen (Eds.), Handbook of peer interactions, relationships, and groups (pp.63–81). Guilford Press.

9. Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78(2), 647-663. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01019.x
10. Blau, I., & Shamir Inbal, T. (2017). Digital competences and long-term ICT integration in school culture: The perspective of elementary school leaders. Education and Information Technologies, 22(3), 769–787. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-015-9456-7
11. Blitz-Raith, A. H., & Liu, J. (2017). Interactivity in Educational Apps for Young children: A Multimodal Analysis. International Journal of Instruction, 10(4), 237–254. https://doi.org/10.12973/iji.2017.10414a
12. Boivin, M. (2005). The origin of peer relationship difficulties in early childhood and their impact on children’s psychosocial adjustment and development. Encyclopedia on early childhood development, 1-7. Erişim adresi http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/documents/BoivinANGxp.pdf.
13. Bornstein, M. (Ed.). (2002). Handbook of parenting (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.
14. Bourbour, M., Högberg, S., & Lindqvist, G. (2020). Putting Scaffolding Into Action: Preschool Teachers’ Actions Using Interactive Whiteboard. Early Childhood Education Journal, 48(1), 79–92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-019-00971-3
15. Bowker, J. C., Rubin, K., Burgess, K., Booth-LaForce, C., & Rose-Krasnor, L. (2006). Behavioral characteristics associated with stable and fluid best friendship patterns in middle childhood. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 52, 671–693.
16. Brownell, C. A., & Brown, E. (1992) Peers and play in infants and toddlers. In van Hasselt, V.B. & Hersen, M. (Eds.), Handbook of social development: a lifespan perspective. (183–200). Plenum Press.
17. Bukowski, W. M. (2001). Friendship and the worlds of childhood. New Directions for Child & Adolescent Development, 2001(91).
18. Büyüköztürk, S. (2017). Data analysis for social sciences hand book (23nd ed.). Pegem Akademi Publishing.
19. Cao, S., Dong, C., & Li, H. (2022). Digital parenting during the COVID-19 lockdowns: How chinese parents viewed and mediated young children’s digital use. Early Child Development and Care, 192(15), 2401–2416. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2021.2016732
20. Carson, V., Clark, M., Berry, T., Holt, N. L., & Latimer-Cheung, A. E. (2014). A qualitative examination of the perceptions of parents on the Canadian Sedentary Behaviour Guidelines for the early years. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 11(1), 1-8.
21. Carson, V., & Kuzik, N. (2021). The association between parent-child technology interference and cognitive and social-emotional development in preschool-aged children. Child: Care, Health and Development, 47(1), 477-483.
22. Cekaite, A., & Evaldsson, A. C. (2020). The moral character of emotion work in adult-child interactions. Text & Talk, 40(5), 563-572. https://doi.org/10.1515/text-2020-2082
23. Chang, H. Y., Park, E. J., Yoo, H. J., Lee, J. W., & Shin, Y. (2018). Electronic media exposure and use among toddlers. Psychiatry Investigation, 15(6), 568–573. https://doi.org/10.30773/pi.2017.11.30.2
24. Chen, D. W., Fein, G. G., Killen, M., & Tam, H. P. (2001). Peer conflicts of preschool children: Issues, resolution, incidence, and age-related patterns. Early education and development, 12(4), 523-544.
25. Cho, K. S., and Lee, J.-M. (2017). Influence of smartphone addiction proneness of young children on problematic behaviors and emotional intelligence: mediating self-assessment effects of parents using smartphones. Comput. Hum. Behav. 66, 303–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.09.063
26. Christakis, D. A., & Zimmerman, F. J. (2009). Young children and media: Limitations of current knowledge and future directions for research. American Behavioral Scientist, 52(8), 1177–1185. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764209331540
27. Chung-Hall, J., & Chen, X. (2010). Aggressive and prosocial peer group functioning: effects on children's social, school, and psychological adjustment. Social Development, 19, 659–680. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2009.00556.x
28. Coplan, R. J., & Arbeau, K. A. (2009). Peer interactions and play in early childhood. In Social, emotional, and personality development in context. Rubin, K. H., Bukowski, W. M., & Laursen, B. (Eds.), Handbook of peer interactions, relationships, and groups,, , (pp. 143–161). Guilford Press.
29. Corsaro, W. A., & Maynard, D. W. (1996). Format tying in discussion and argumentation among Italian and American children D.I. Slobin, J. Gerhardt, M. Kyratzis, J. Guo (Eds.), Social interaction, social context, and language: Essays in honor of susan ervin-tripp, Lawrence Erlbaum,
30. Corsaro, W. A., & Schwarz, K. (1991). Peer play and socialization in two cultures: Implications for research and practice. B. Scales, M. Almy, A. Nicolopoulou, S. Ervin-Tripp (Eds.), Play and the social context of development in early care and education, (234-254). Teachers College, Columbia University, New York
31. Coşkun, R., Altunışık, R., & Yıldırım, E. (2017). Sosyal Bilimlerde Araştırma Yöntemleri (9. Basım.). Sakarya Yayıncılık.
32. Cranley Gallagher, K., & Sylvester, P. R. (2009). Supporting peer relationships in early education. O. A. Barbarin ve B. H. Wasik (Eds.), Handbook of child development and early education: research to practice (223-246). The Guilford Press
33. Creswell, J. W. (2017). Araştırma Deseni Nitel, Nicel ve Karma Yöntem Yaklaşımları. (S. B. Demir Çev.). Eğiten Kitap.
34. Crompton, H., Gregory, K., & Burke, D. (2018). Humanoid robots supporting children’s learning in an early childhood setting. British Journal of Educational Technology, 49(5), 911–927.
35. Danby, S., Evaldsson, A. C., Melander, H., & Aarsand, P. (2018). Situated collaboration and problem solving in young children's digital gameplay. British Journal of Educational Technology, 49(5), 959-972. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12636
36. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R.M. (2012). Self-determination theory. In van Lange, P.A.M. , Kruglanski, A.W. & Higgins, E.T. (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology. Thousand Oaks (pp-416–437), Sage.
37. Denham, S. A. (2007). Dealing with feelings: how children negotiate the worlds of emotions and social relationships. Cognitie, Creier, Comportament/Cognition, Brain, Behavior, 11(1), 1-48.
38. Denham, S. A., & Brown, C. (2010). Plays nice with others: Social–emotional learning and academic success. Early Education and Development, 21(5), 652-680. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2010.497450
39. Denham, S. A., Wyatt, T. M., Bassett, H. H., Echeverria, D., & Knox, S. S. (2009). Assessing social-emotional development in children from a longitudinal perspective. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 63(1), 37-52. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2007.070797
40. Donohue, C. (2015). Technology and digital media as tools for teaching and learning in the digital age. In C. Donohue (Ed.), Technology and digital media in the early years: Tools for teaching and learning (pp. 21–35). Routledge.
41. Downey, D. B., & Gibbs, B. G. (2020). Kids these days: are face-to-face social skills among American children declining?. American journal of sociology, 125(4), 1030-1083. https://doi.org/10.1086/707985
42. Eales, L., Gillespie, S., Alstat, R. A., Ferguson, G. M., & Carlson, S. M. (2021). Children’s screen and problematic media use in the United States before and during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Child development, 92(5), 866-882. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13652
43. Edwards, C. P. (1992). Cross-cultural perspectives on family-peer relations. In R.D. Parke & G.W. Ladd (Eds.), Family-peer relationships: Modes of linkage (pp. 285–316). Erlbaum.
44. Egan, S. M., & Beatty, C. (2021). To school through the screens: the use of screen devices to support young children's education and learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Irish Educational Studies, 40(2), 275-283. https://doi.org/10.1080/03323315.2021.1932551
45. Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Spinrad, T. (2006). Prosocial development. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Social emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 646–718). John Wiley & Sons.
46. Eivers, A. R., Brendgen, M., Vitaro, F., & Borge, A. I. (2012). Concurrent and longitudinal links between children's and their friends’ antisocial and prosocial behavior in preschool. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(1), 137–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2011.05.001
47. Ergün, Ö. R., & Dönmez, Ö. (2023). COVID-19 pandemisi sürecinde okul öncesi çocukların dış mekân oyunlarının ve teknoloji kullanımının incelenmesi. Temel Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 3(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.55008/te-ad.1195009
48. Fabes, R. A., Martin, C. L., & Hanish, L. D. (2009). Children's behaviors and interactions with peers. Rubin, K. H., Bukowski, W. M., & Laursen, B. (Eds.). Handbook of peer interactions, relationships, and groups (pp-45-62).Guilford Press.
49. Falloon, G., & Khoo, E. (2014). Exploring young students’ talk in iPad-supported collaborative learning environments. Computers and Education, 77, 13–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.04.008
50. Fang, M., Tapalova, O., Zhiyenbayeva, N., & Kozlovskaya, S. (2022). Impact of digital game-based learning on the social competence and behavior of preschoolers. Education and Information Technologies, 27(3), 3065-3078. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10737-3
51. Farina, E., & Belacchi, C. (2021). Being visible or being liked? Social status and emotional skills in bullying among young children. European Journal of Developmental Psychology. 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2021.1903864
52. Feldman, R. S. (2012). Child development. Pearson.
53. Ferguson, C. J. (2013). Violent video games and the Supreme Court. American Psychologist, 68, 57–74. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030597
54. Ferguson, C. J., & Olson, C. K. (2013). Friends, fun, frustration and fantasy: Child motivations for video game play. Motivation and Emotion, 37, 154–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-012-9284-7
55. Fleer, M. (2018). Digital animation: new conditions for children's development in play-based setting. British Journal of Educational Technology, 49(5), 943–958. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12637
56. Flewitt, R., Messer, D., & Kucirkova, N. (2015). New directions for early literacy in a digital age: the iPad. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 15(3), 289–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468798414533560
57. Freeman, N. K., & J. Somerindyke. (2001). “Social Play at the Computer: Preschoolers Scaffold and Support Peers’ Computer Competence.” Information Technology in Childhood Education Annual 1: 203–13.
58. Genç, Z. (2014). Parents’ perceptions about the mobile technology use of preschool aged children. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 146, 55-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.08.086
59. George, D., & Mallery, M. (2010). SPSS for windows step by step: A simple guide and reference, 17.0 Update (10a Ed.). England: Pearson.
60. González-García, C., Bravo, A., Arruabarrena, I., Martín, E., Santos, I., & Del Valle, J. F. (2017). Emotional and behavioral problems of children in residential care: Screening detection and referrals to mental health services. Children and Youth Services Review, 73, 100–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.12.011
61. Gözen, G., & Cırık, İ. (2017). Dijital öykülemenin okul öncesi çocukların sosyal-duygusal davranışlarına etkisi. İlköğretim Online, 16(4), 1882-1896. https://doi.org/10.17051/ilkonline.2017.358215
62. Gray, C., Dunn, J., Moffett, P., & Mitchell, D. (2017). Mobile devices in early learning: Evaluating the use of portable devices to support young children’s learning. Report commissioned by Irish Education Authority. Erişim adresi https://library.parenthelp.eu/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/media756133en.pdf
63. Gresham, F. M. (2016). Social skills assessment and intervention for children and youth. Cambridge Journal of Education, 46, 319–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2016.1195788
64. Guedes, S. D. C., Morais, R. L. D. S., Santos, L. R., Leite, H. R., Nobre, J. N. P., & Santos, J. N. (2019). Children’s use of interactive media in early childhood-an epidemiological study. Revista Paulista de Pediatria, 38, e2018165. https://doi.org/10.1590/1984-0462/2020/38/2018165
65. Güzen, M. (2021). Covid-19 pandemi oncesi ve pandemi sürecinde 4-6 yaş cocuklarının dijital oyun bağımlılık eğilimleri ve ebeveyn rehberlik stratejilerinde görülen farklılıkların incelenmesi (Tez no. 677915) [Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Pamukkale Üniversitesi-Denizli]. Yükseköğretim Kurulu Başkanlığı Tez Merkezi.
66. Hanish, L. D., Ryan, P., Martin, C. L., & Fabes, R. A. (2005). The social context of young children's peer victimization. Social Development, 14(1), 2-19. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2005.00288.x
67. Hartup, W. W. (1992). Peer relations in early and middle childhood. In Handbook of social development: A lifespan perspective (pp. 257-281). Springer.
68. Hay, D. F. (2005). Early peer relations and their impact on children’s development. Encyclopedia on early childhood development, 1(1), 1-6.
69. Hay, D. F., Payne, A., & Chadwick, A. (2004). Peer relations in childhood. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 45(1), 84-108. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0021-9630.2003.00308.x
70. Hinkley, T., Brown, H., Carson, V., & Teychenne, M. (2018). Cross sectional associations of screen time and outdoor play with social skills in preschool children. PLoS ONE, 13(4), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193700
71. Holder, M. D., & Coleman, B. (2015). Children’s friendships and positive well-being. M. Demir (Ed.), Friendship and happiness: Across the life-span and cultures (pp-81-97). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9603-3_5
72. Holland, M. L., Malmberg, J., & Peacock, G. G. (2017). Emotional and behavioral problems of young children: Effective interventions in the preschool and kindergarten years. Guilford Publications.
73. Howes, C. (1996). The earliest friendships. The company they keep: Friendship in childhood and adolescence, 66-86.
74. Huber, L., Plötner, M., & Schmitz, J. (2019). Social competence and psychopathology in early childhood: A systematic review. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 28(4), 443–459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-018-1152-x
75. Hygen, B. W., Belsky, J., Stenseng, F., Skalicka, V., Kvande, M. N., Zahl-Thanem, T., & Wichstrøm, L. (2020). Time spent gaming and social competence in children: Reciprocal effects across childhood. Child Development, 91(3), 861–875. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13243
76. Işıklı Erdoğan, N. (2019). Dijital oyun popüler mi? Ebeveynlerin çocukları için oyun tercihlerinin incelenmesi. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 46(46), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.9779/pauefd.446654
77. Jensen, S. V. (2018). Difference and closeness: Young children’s peer interactions and peer relations in school. Childhood, 25(4), 501-515. https://doi.org/10.1177/0907568218803437
78. Kanmaz, T. & Tezel-Şahin, F. (2022). Okul öncesinde akran ilişkileri ölçeği ebeveyn ve öğretmen formlarının geliştirilmesi. Turkish Studies-Education, 17(3), 437-468. https://dx.doi.org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.55791
79. Karasar, N. (2005). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi: Kavramlar İlkeler Teknikler. Nobel Yayıncılık.
80. Karno, D., & Hatcher, B. (2020). Building computer supported collaborative learning environments in early childhood classrooms. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68(1), 249-267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-019-09686-z
81. Kearney, M., Schuck, S., Aubusson, P., & Burke, P. F. (2018). Teachers’ technology adoption and practices: lessons learned from the IWB phenomenon. Teacher Development, 22(4), 481–496. https://doi.org/10.1080/13664530.2017.1363083
82. Konca, A. S., Baltacı, Ö., & Akbulut, Ö. F. (2022). Problematic Technology Use Scale for Young Children (PTUS-YC): Validity and Reliability Study. International Journal of Assessment Tools in Education, 9(2), 267-289. https://doi.org/10.21449/ijate.888936
83. Konok, V., & Szőke, R. (2022). Longitudinal associations of children’s hyperactivity/inattention, peer relationship problems and mobile device use. Sustainability, 14.14: 8845. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148845
84. Köngäs, M., Määttä, K., & Uusiautti, S. (2022). Participation in play activities in the children’s peer culture. Early child development and care, 192(10), 1533-1546. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2021.1912743
85. Kucaba, K., & Monks, C. P. (2022). Peer relations and friendships in early childhood: The association with peer victimization. Aggressive behavior, 48(4), 431-442. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.22029
86. Kustatscher, M. (2017). The emotional geographies of belonging: Children’s intersectional identities in primary school. Children's Geographies, 15(1), 65-79. https://doi.org/10.1080/14733285.2016.1252829
87. Lawrence, S. M. (2018). Preschool children and ipads: observations of social ınteractions during digital play. Early Education and Development, 29(2), 207–228. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2017.1379303
88. Lewis, K. L., Howard, S. J., Verenikina, I., & Kervin, L. K. (2023). Parent perspectives on young children’s changing digital practices: Insights from Covid-19. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 21(1), 76-90. https://doi.org/10.1177/1476718X221145486
89. Lim, E. M. (2012). Patterns of kindergarten children’s social interaction with peers in the computer area. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 7(3), 399–421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11412-012-9152-1
90. Lim, E. M. (2015). The factors influencing young children's social interaction in technology integration. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 23(4), 545-562. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2013.810484
91. Lin, H. P., Chen, K. L., Chou, W., Yuan, K. S., Yen, S. Y., Chen, Y. S., et al. (2020). Prolonged touch screen device usage is associated with emotional and behavioral problems, but not language delay, in toddlers. Infant Behavior and Devolopment. 58:101424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2020.101424
92. Lindsey, E. W. (2002). Preschool children's friendships and peer acceptance: Links to social competence. Child Study Journal, 32, 145–156.
93. Ljung Djärf, A. (2008). The owner, the participant and the spectator: Positions and positioning in peer activity around the computer in pre-school. Early Years, 28(1), 61–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/09575140701846487
94. Marsh, J., Plowman, L., Yamada-Rice, D., Bishop, J., Lahmar, J., Scott, F., Davenport, A., Davis, S., French, K., Piras, M., Thornhill, S., Robinson, P., & Winter, P. (2015). Exploring Play and Creativity in Pre-schooler's use of apps: Final Project Report. Erişim adresi https://researchonline.rca.ac.uk/4279/1/Component%201%20TAP_Final_Report.pdf
95. Maureen, I. Y., van der Meij, H., & de Jong, T. (2020). Enhancing storytelling activities to support early (digital) literacy development in early childhood education. International Journal of Early Childhood, 52(1), 55–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-020-00263-7
96. McCabe, P. C., & Meller, P. J. (2004). The relationship between language and social competence: How language impairment affects social growth. Psychology in the Schools, 41(3), 313–321.
97. McDaniel, B. T., & Radesky, J. S. (2020). Longitudinal associations between early childhood externalizing behavior, parenting stress, and child media use. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 23, 384–391. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2019.0478
98. Miller, D., Robertson, D., Hudson, A., & Shimi, J. (2012). Signature pedagogy in early years education: A role for cots game-based learning. Computers in the Schools, 29(1–2), 227–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/07380569.2012.651423
99. Miller, T. (2018). Developing numeracy skills using interactive technology in a play-based learning environment. International Journal of Stem Education, 5(1), 39–59. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-018-0135-2
100. Moore, H. L. (2014). Young children’s play using digital touch screen tablets [Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Texas at Austin-Austin]. Erişim adresi http://hdl.handle.net/215224930
101. Moore, H. L., & Adair, J. K. (2015). I’m just playing iPad: Comparing prekindergarteners’ and preservice teachers’ social interactions while using tablets for learning. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 36, 362–378. https://doi.org/10.1080/10901027.2015.1104763
102. NAEYC, & Fred Rogers Center (2012). Key messages of the NAEYC/Fred Rogers Center position statement on technology and interactive Media in Early Childhood Programs. Erişim adresi http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/PS_technology_WEB2.pdf
103. Nannatt, A., Tariang, N. M., Gowda, M., & Devassy, S. M. (2022). Family factors associated with problematic use of the internet in children: a scoping review. Indian journal of psychological medicine, 44(4), 341-348. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176221090
104. Nikolayev, M., Clark, K., & Reich, S. M. (2016). Social-emotional learning opportunities in online games for preschoolers. In Emotions, technology, and digital games (pp. 211-229). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801738-8.00010-5
105. O’Byrne, W.I., Houser, K., Stone, R., & White, M. (2018). Digital storytelling in early childhood: student illustrations shaping social interactions. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(1), 1800-1829. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01800
106. Okatan, Ö., & Tagay, Ö. (2023). COVID-19 pandemi sürecinde okul öncesi velisi olmak. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Buca Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, (56), 626-648. https://doi.org/10.53444/deubefd.1227988
107. Oliemat, E., Ihmeideh, F., & Alkhawaldeh, M. (2018). The use of touch-screen tablets in early childhood: Children's knowledge, skills, and attitudes towards tablet technology. Children and Youth Services Review, 88, 591-597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.03.028
108. Operto, F. F., Pastorino, G. M. G., Marciano, J., de Simone, V., Volini, A. P., Olivieri, M., Buonaiuto, R., Vetri, L., Viggiano, A., & Coppola, G. (2020). Digital devices use and language skills in children between 8 and 36 month. Brain Sciences, 10(9), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci10090656
109. Otterborn, A., Schönborn, K., & Hultén, M. (2019). Surveying preschool teachers’ use of digital tablets: general and technology education related findings. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 29(4), 717–737. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-018- 9469-9
110. Öneren Şendil, Ç., & Erden, F. T. (2014). Peer preference: A way of evaluating social competence and behavioural well-being in early childhood. Early Child Development and Care, 184(2), 230-246. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2013.778254
111. Pahigiannis, K., & Glos, M. (2020). Peer influences in self-regulation development and interventions in early childhood. Early Child Development and Care, 190(7), 1053– 1064. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2018.1513923
112. Palmer, S. (2015). Toxic childhood: How the modern world is damaging our children and what we can do about it. Orion.
113. Papadakis, S., & Kalogiannakis, M. (2019). Evaluating the effectiveness of a game-based learning approach in modifying students' behavioural outcomes and competence, in an introductory programming course. A case study in Greece. International Journal of Teaching and Case Studies, 10(3), 235–250. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJTCS.2019.102760
114. Peirce, N. (2013). Digital game-based learning for early childhood. Learnovate Centre. Plowman, L., McPake, J., & Stephen, C. (2008). Just picking it up? Young children learning with technology at home. Cambridge Journal of Education, 38(3), 303–319
115. Plowman, L., McPake, J., & Stephen, C. (2010). The technologisation of childhood? Young children and technology in the home. Children & Society, 24, 63–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1099-0860.2008.00180.x
116. Proulx, M. F., & Poulin, F. (2013). Stability and change in kindergartners’ friendships: Examination of links with social functioning. Social Development, 22(1), 111–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12001
117. Radesky, J. S., Silverstein, M., Zuckerman, B., & Christakis, D. A. (2014). Infant self-regulation and early childhood media exposure. Pediatrics, 133(5), e1172–e1178.
118. Ralph, R. (2018). Media and technology in preschool classrooms: manifesting prosocial sharing behaviors when using iPads, Technology, Knowledge and Learning, 23(2), 199–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-017-9342-z
119. Rubin, K. H., Coplan R. J., Chen, X., Bowker, J. C., McDonald, K. L., & Heverly-Fitt, S. (2015). Peer relationships. M. H. Bornstein ve M. E. Lamb (Eds.), Development science (pp-587-644). Psychology Press.
120. Sciacca, B., Laffan, D. A., Norman, J. O. H., & Milosevic, T. (2022). Parental mediation in pandemic: Predictors and relationship with children’s digital skills and time spent online in Ireland. Computers in Human Behavior, 127, 107081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.107081
121. Scott, F. L. (2021). April Digital Technology and Play in Early Childhood. Erişim adresi https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/technology-early-childhood-education/according-experts/digital-technology-and-play-early-childhood.
122. Sharkins, K. A., Newton, A. B., Albaiz, N. E. A., & Ernest, J. M. (2016). Preschool children’s exposure to media, technology, and screen time: Perspectives of caregivers from three early childcare settings. Early Childhood Education Journal, 44, 437-444. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-015-0732-3
123. Shawcroft, J., Blake, H., Gonzalez, A., & Coyne, S. M. (2023). Structures for screens: longitudinal associations between parental media rules and problematic media use in early childhood. Technology, Mind, and Behavior, 4(2), 10.1037 https://doi.org/10.1037/tmb0000104
124. Slutsky, R., & DeShetler, L. M. (2016). How technology is transforming the ways in which children play. Early Child Development and Care, 187(7), 1138–1146. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2016.1157790
125. Sundqvist, P., & Nilsson, T. (2018). Technology education in preschool: providing opportunities for children to use artifacts and to create. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 28(1), 29–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-016-9375-y
126. Susilowati, I. H., Nugraha, S., Alimoeso, S., & Hasiholan, B. P. (2021). Screen time for preschool children: learning from home during the COVID-19 pandemic. Global Pediatric Health, 8, https://doi.org/10.1177/2333794X211017836
127. Vaala, S. E., & Bleakley, A. (2015). Monitoring, mediating, and modeling: Parental influence on adolescent computer and Internet use in the United States. Journal of Children & Media, 9, 40–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2015.997103
128. Valkenburg, P. M., Piotrowski, J. T., Hermanns, J., & De Leeuw, R. (2013). Developing and validating the perceived parental media mediation scale: A self-determination perspective. Human Communication Research, 39, 445–469. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12010
129. Yiğit, E. (2025). Okul öncesi dönemde çocukları olan annelerin teknoloji bağımlılık düzeylerinin çocuklarının teknoloji metaforları üzerindeki etkisinin incelenmesi (Tez no. 929174),[Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul Aydın Üniversitesi-İstanbul]. Yükseköğretim Kurulu Başkanlığı Tez Merkezi.
130. Yüksel, H., & Albaş, İ. (2023). Covid-19 pandemi sürecinde okul öncesi (3-6 yaş) çocukların yaşadıkları sorunlar: İzmir örneği. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Buca Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, (58), 3056-3085. https://doi.org/10.53444/deubefd.1345131
131. Walden, T. A., Lemerise, E. A., & Smith, M. (1999). Friendship and popularity in preschool classrooms. Early Education and Development, 10(3), 351–371.
132. Walker, G., & Venker Weidenbenner, J. (2019). Social and Emotional Learning in the age of virtual play: technology, empathy, and learning. Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning, 12(2), 116–132. https://doi.org/10.1108/jrit-03-2019-0046
133. Wang, C., Qian, H., Li, H., & Wu, D. (2023). The status quo, contributors, consequences and models of digital overuse/problematic use in preschoolers: A scoping review. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1049102. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1049102
134. Wang, Y. L., Kajamies, A., Hurme, T. R., & Palonen, T. (2021). Together with my playmates: Preschoolers' peer relationships and interactions in small group settings. Learning, Culture and Social Interaction, 30, 100531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lcsi.2021.100531
135. Wang, Y., Palonen, T., Hurme, T. R., & Kinos, J. (2019). Do you want to play with me today? Friendship stability among preschool children. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 27(2), 170-184. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2019.1579545
136. Wartella, E. A., Rideout, V. J., Lauricella, A. R., & Connell, S. (2013). Parenting in the age of digital technology. Erişim adresi https://static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/1083077/22839022/1370380073813/PARENTING_IN_THE_AGE_OF_DIGITAL_TECHNOLOGY.pdf
137. Wolfe, S., & Flewitt, R. (2010). New technologies, new multimodal practices and young children's metacognitive development. Cambridge Journal of Education, 40(4), 387–399. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2010.526589
138. Wyatt, A., & Young, M. (2024). Digital disaster: The effects of excessive technology and problematic parental technology use on social development in early childhood. https://dc.etsu.edu/asrf/2024/schedule/218/
139. Yannier, N., Koedinger, K. R., & Hudson, S. E. (2015). Learning from mixed-reality games: Is shaking a tablet as effective as physical observation? In Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 1045–1054). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/2702123.2702397.
140. Zarbatany, L., Hartmann, D. P., & Rankin, D. B. (1990). The psychological functions of preadolescent peer activities. Child development, 61(4), 1067-1080.