The Effect of Age in Second Language Acquisition: An Error Analysis of the Written Expressions of Bilingual Syrian Individuals in Turkey

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to examine the written documents of Syrian late bilinguals using error analysis to identify error types and uncover the correlation between late bilingualism and writing errors. Using a mixed methods approach, the written narratives of 80 Syrian late bilinguals aged 8 to 15 years were analyzed via document analysis. Findings revealed that 32% of the total errors were morphological. Considering morphological components are acquired at an early age, their decay requires many years. The research demonstrates a significant relationship between the error types produced in written expressions and late bilingual status. These findings add a new dimension to the critical period hypothesis in language acquisition theories, suggesting that traditional assumptions about the permanence of early acquired language skills should be reconsidered for late bilinguals living under dominant language influence. Psycholinguistically, the results indicate that written language production in late bilinguals involves systematic processing difficulties in morphological affixation, orthographic encoding, and phonological segmentation due to working memory load and dominant language inhibition.

Keywords

• Late bilingualism
• error analysis
• critical period hypothesis
• second language acquisition
• Syrian bilinguals.

İkinci Dil Ediniminde Geç Yaş Etkisi: Türkiye’deki İki Dilli Suriyeli Bireylerin Yazılı Anlatımlarına İlişkin Hata Analizi

Abstract

Bu çalışmanın amacı, Suriyeli geç iki dilli bireylerin yazılı dokümanlarını hata analiziyle inceleyerek hata türlerini belirlemek ve geç iki dillilik ile yazma hataları arasındaki ilişkiyi ortaya çıkarmaktır. Karma yöntemin kullanıldığı araştırmada, 8 ile 15 yaş aralığındaki 80 Suriyeli geç iki dilli bireyin yazılı anlatımları doküman analiziyle incelenmiştir. Bulgular, toplam hataların %32'sinin biçimbilimsel olduğunu göstermektedir. Biçimbilimsel unsurların erken yaşta edinildiği göz önüne alındığında, bozulmalarının uzun yıllar aldığı söylenebilir. Sonuçlar, katılımcıların geç iki dilli olmaları ile ürettikleri hata türleri arasında anlamlı bir ilişki olduğunu kanıtlamaktadır. Bu durum, dil edinim kuramlarındaki kritik dönem hipotezine farklı bir boyut kazandırmakta ve yoğun baskın dil etkisi altındaki bireyler için geleneksel kabullerin yeniden değerlendirilmesini gerektirmektedir. Psikodilbilimsel düzlemde bulgular, çalışma belleği yükü ve baskın dilin engelleyici etkisi nedeniyle biçimbilimsel eklemleme, yazımsal kodlama ve sesbilgisel ayrıştırma aşamalarında dizgesel işlemleme zorluğu yaşandığını ortaya koymaktadır.

Keywords

• Geç iki dillilik
• Hata Analizi
• Kritik Dönem Hipotezi
• İkinci Dil Edinimi
• Suriyeli İki dilliler.

References

1. Aksu-Koç, A., & Slobin, D. I. (1985). The acquisition of Turkish. In D. I. Slobin (Ed.), The crosslinguistic study of language acquisition (pp. 839-878). Lawrence Erlbaum.
2. Baddeley, A. D. (2003). Working memory and language: An overview. Journal of Communication Disorders, 36(3), 189-208.
3. Baker, C., & Wright, W. E. (2021). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism (7th ed.). Multilingual Matters.
4. Best, C. T., & Tyler, M. D. (2007). Nonnative and second-language speech perception: Commonalities and complementarities. In O.-S. Bohn & M. J. Munro (Eds.), Language experience in second language speech learning (pp. 13-34). John Benjamins.
5. Birdsong, D. (2006). Age and second language acquisition and processing: A selective overview. Language Learning, 56(1), 9–49.
6. Clahsen, H., & Felser, C. (2006). Grammatical processing in language learners. Applied Psycholinguistics, 27(1), 3-42.
7. Cook, V. J., & Bassetti, B. (Eds.). (2005). Second language writing systems. Multilingual Matters.
8. Corder, S. P. (1967). The significance of learner's errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 5(4), 161-170.

9. Corder, S. P. (1971). Idiosyncratic dialects and error analysis. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 9(2), 147-160.
10. Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2017). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.
11. Cumming, A. (1989). Writing expertise and second-language proficiency. Language Learning, 39(1), 81-135.
12. De Houwer, A. (2009). Bilingual first language acquisition. Multilingual Matters.
13. Directorate General of Migration Management. (2023). Temporary protection statistics. Republic of Turkey Ministry of Interior.
14. Dulay, H., Burt, M., & Krashen, S. (1982). Language two. Oxford University Press.
15. Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
16. Ellis, R., & Barkhuizen, G. (2005). Analysing learner language. Oxford University Press.
17. Erdoğan, M. (2020). Syrians in Turkey: Social acceptance and integration research. Hacettepe University Migration and Politics Research Centre.
18. Gass, S. M., & Selinker, L. (2008). Second language acquisition: An introductory course (3rd ed.). Routledge.
19. Green, D. W. (1998). Mental control of the bilingual lexico-semantic system. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1(2), 67-81.
20. Grosjean, F. (2010). Bilingual: Life and reality. Harvard University Press.
21. Haznedar, B. (2007). The acquisition of tense-aspect in child second language English. Second Language Research, 23(4), 383-417.
22. James, C. (2013). Errors in language learning and use: Exploring error analysis. Routledge.
23. Jarvis, S., & Pavlenko, A. (2008). Crosslinguistic influence in language and cognition. Routledge.
24. Jiang, N. (2004). Morphological insensitivity in second language processing. Applied Psycholinguistics, 25(4), 603-634.
25. Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E. L. (1989). Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology, 21(1), 60-99.
26. Kara, Ö. T., & Şıhanlıoğlu, Ö. (2019). Türkiye'de görülen süreç odaklı iki dillilik modelleri. *Uluslararası Diller Kongresi (INCOL-2019), 09-11 Ekim 2019, Çukurova Üniversitesi, Tam Metin Kitabı* içinde (ss. 247–258). Rating Academy Yayınları.
27. Kara, Ö. T., & Şıhanlıoğlu, Ö. (2021). İki dillilik, çok dillilik ve türleri. M. Tunagür & A. Karabulut (Ed.), İki dilli Türk çocuklarına Türkçe öğretimi içinde (ss. 31–54). Akademisyen Yayınları.
28. Kellogg, R. T. (1996). A model of working memory in writing. In C. M. Levy & S. Ransdell (Eds.), The science of writing (pp. 57-71). Lawrence Erlbaum.
29. Koda, K. (2005). Insights into second language reading: A cross-linguistic approach. Cambridge University Press.
30. Köpke, B. (2007). Language attrition at the crossroads of brain, mind, and society. In B. Köpke, M. S. Schmid, M. Keijzer, & S. Dostert (Eds.), Language attrition: Theoretical perspectives (pp. 9–37). John Benjamins.
31. Kore, S., Park, J., & Lee, H. (2015). An analysis of writing errors across different L1 backgrounds. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 6(3), 489-497.
32. Kormos, J. (2012). The role of individual differences in L2 writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 21(4), 390-403.
33. Kroll, J. F., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Understanding the consequences of bilingualism for language processing and cognition. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 497-514.
34. Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across cultures: Applied linguistics for language teachers. University of Michigan Press.
35. Lenneberg, E. H. (1967). Biological foundations of language. Wiley.
36. Levelt, W. J. M. (1989). Speaking: From intention to articulation. MIT Press.
37. Levelt, W. J. M., Roelofs, A., & Meyer, A. S. (1999). A theory of lexical access in speech production. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22(1), 1-38.
38. McDonald, J. L. (2006). Beyond the critical period: Processing-based explanations for poor grammaticality judgment performance by late second language learners. Journal of Memory and Language, 55(3), 381-401.
39. Montrul, S. (2008). Incomplete acquisition in bilingualism: Re-examining the age factor. John Benjamins.
40. Montrul, S. (2011). Morphological errors in Spanish second language learners and heritage speakers. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 33(2), 163-192.
41. Montrul, S. (2016). The acquisition of heritage languages. Cambridge University Press.
42. Nation, I. S. P. (2013). Learning vocabulary in another language (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
43. Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer: Cross-linguistic influence in language learning. Cambridge University Press.
44. Paradis, M. (2007). The neurofunctional components of the bilingual cognitive system. In I. Kecskes & L. Albertazzi (Eds.), Cognitive aspects of bilingualism (pp. 3-28). Springer.
45. Salmela, R., Lehtonen, M., & Bertram, R. (2025). Processing inflected words in Finnish as a second language: Evidence from reaction time and error analysis. Second Language Research, 41(1), 87-112.
46. Salmela, R., Lehtonen, M., & Laine, M. (2025). Morphological processing in Finnish second language speakers. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 28(2), 245-260.
47. Schlyter, S. (1993). The weaker language in bilingual Swedish-French children. In K. Hyltenstam & Å. Viberg (Eds.), Progression and regression in language (pp. 289-308). Cambridge University Press.
48. Schmid, M. S. (2011). Language attrition. Cambridge University Press.
49. Schmitt, N. (2010). Researching vocabulary: A vocabulary research manual. Palgrave Macmillan.
50. Seliger, H. W., & Vago, R. M. (Eds.). (1991). First language attrition. Cambridge University Press.
51. Silva, T. (1993). Toward an understanding of the distinct nature of L2 writing: The ESL research and its implications. TESOL Quarterly, 27(4), 657-677.
52. Unsworth, S. (2016). Quantity and quality of language input in bilingual language development. In E. Nicoladis & S. Montanari (Eds.), Lifespan perspectives on bilingualism (pp. 103-121). American Psychological Association.
53. Weigle, S. C. (2002). Assessing writing. Cambridge University Press.
54. Yağmur, K. (2017). Multilingualism in Europe and Turkey: A sociolinguistic perspective. Anı Publishing.
55. Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H. (2005). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri (5th ed.). Seçkin Yayıncılık.
56. Yılmaz, M. Y. (2019). Türkçenin ikinci dil olarak ediniminde Arap anadilli öğrenicilerin karşılaştıkları güçlükler [Yayınlanmamış doktora tezi]. Hacettepe University.