EXAMINING THE EFFECTS OF SMARTPHONE USE AT WORK ON WORK ATTITUDES

Abstract

This study concentrated on excessive smartphone use at work and examined its effects on job performance and work attitudes based on a sample of 486 participants from two distinct companies, IT and construction, located in Ankara. In the analysis, smartphone addiction and daily duration of smartphone usage at work were found to be negatively associated with job performance. Meaningful differences were detected in terms of both gender and industry type. Female participants were found to have more daily smartphone use at work than male participants. Those from IT company were also observed to have more daily duration of smartphone use at work than that of construction company. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment had positively associated with each other and with job productivity. However, no meaningful relationship was detected between smartphone addiction and both job satisfaction and organizational commitment. It is concluded that, the level of excessive smartphone use should be determined considering both gender and industry type in order to develop a balanced smartphone use arrangement, which would not harm the productivity at work.

Keywords

• Smartphone addiction
• technology-work conflict
• job satisfaction
• organizational commitment
• job performance

EXAMINING THE EFFECTS OF SMARTPHONE USE AT WORK ON JOB PERFORMANCE AND WORK ATTITUDES

Abstract

Mevcut çalışma iş yerinde aşırı derecede akıllı telefon kullanımının iş performansı ve iş tutumları üzerindeki etkilerini incelemektedir. Çalışmanın verileri Ankara’da faaliyet yürüten, bilgi teknolojileri ve inşaat sektöründeki 486 çalışandan elde edilmiştir. Analiz sonuçları akıllı telefon bağımlılığının ve iş yerinde günlük akıllı telefon kullanımının iş performansı üzerinde negatif bir etki yarattığını ortaya koymuştur. Ek olarak, hem sektör hem de cinsiyet bazında anlamlı farklılıklar tespit edilmiştir. Kadın katılımcıların iş yerinde erkek katılımcılara göre daha fazla günlük akıllı telefon kullandığı görülmüştür. Yine, bilgi teknolojilerinde çalışan bireylerin inşaat sektöründe çalışanlardan daha fazla akıllı telefon kullandığı tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca is tatmini, işe bağlılık ve üretkenlik birbirleriyle ilişkili bulunmuştur. Ancak akıllı telefon bağımlılığı ile hem iş tatmini hem de örgütsel bağlılık arasında anlamlı bir ilişki saptanmamıştır. Bu anlamda, işyerinde verimliliğe zarar vermeyecek dengeli bir akıllı telefon kullanım düzenlemesi geliştirmek için aşırı akıllı telefon kullanım düzeyinin hem cinsiyet hem de sektör türü dikkate alınarak belirlenmesi gerektiği sonucuna varılmıştır.

Keywords

• Akıllı telefon bağımlılığı
• teknoloji-iş çatışması
• iş tatmini
• örgütsel bağlılık
• iş performansı

References

1. Akın, A., Altundağ, Y., Turan, M. E., & Akın, U. (2014). “The validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the smart phone addiction scale-short form for adolescent”, Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 152, 74-77.
2. Ali-Hassan, H., Nevo, D., Wade, M. (2015). “Linking dimensions of social media use to job performance: The role of social capital”, Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 24, 65–89.
3. Allen, N. & Meyer, J. (1996). “Affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization: an examination of construct validity”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 49(3), 252-276.
4. Allen, N. J., & Meyer, J. P. (1990). “The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance and normative commitment to the organization”, Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63(1), 1-18.
5. Alton, E. M., Trafton, J. G., & Hambrick, D. Z. (2014). “Momentary interruptions can derail the train of thought”, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(1), 215–226.
6. Arpaci, I., Baloğlu, M., Özteke Kozan, H. İ., & Kesici, Ş. (2017). “Individual differences in the relationship between attachment and nomophobia among college students: The mediating role of mindfulness”, Journal of Medical Internet Research, 19(12), 404-404.
7. Augner, C., & Hacker, G. W. (2012). “Associations between problematic mobile phone use and psychological parameters in young adults”, International Journal of Public Health, 5(7), 437-441. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00038-011-Q234-z.
8. Balfour, D. L., &Wechsler, B. (1990). “Organizational commitment: A reconceptualization and empirical test of public-private difference”, Review of Public Personnel Administration, 10, 23-40.

9. Balfour, D. L., & Wechsler, B. (1991). “Commitment, performance, and productivity in public organizations”, Public Productivity & Management Review, 14, 355-367.
10. Bennett, J., Owers, M., Pitt, M. and Tucker, M. (2010), “Workplace impact of social networking”, Property Management, 28(3), 138-148.
11. Beranuy, M., Oberst, U., Carbonell, X., & Chamarro, A. (2009). “Problematic Internet and mobile phone use and clinical symptoms in college students: The role of emotional intelligence”, Computers in Human Behavior, 25(5), 1182–1187.
12. Brooks, S. (2015). “Does personal social media usage affect efficiency and well-being?”, Computers in Human Behavior, 46, 26–37.
13. Cameron, A. F., & Webster, J. (2005). “Unintended consequences of emerging communication technologies: Instant messaging in the workplace”, Computers in Human Behavior, 21(1), 85-103.
14. Cao, X. and Yu, L. (2019). “Exploring the influence of excessive social media use at work: A three-dimension usage perspective”, International Journal of Information Management, 46, 83–92.
15. Cheever, N. A., Rosen, L. D., Carrier, L. M., & Chavez, A. (2014). “Out of sight is not out of mind: The impact of restricting wireless mobile device use on anxiety levels among low, moderate and high users”, Computers in Human Behavior, 37, 290-297.
16. Clark, S. C. (2001), “Work cultures and work/family balance”, Journal of Vocation Behavior, 58(3), 348-365.
17. Cook. J. & Wall, T. (1980). “New work attitude measures of trust, organizational commitment and personal need non-fulfilment”, Journal of Occupational Psychology, 53, 39-52.
18. Çöl, G. (2008). “Algılanan Güçlendirmenin İşgören Performansı Üzerine Etkileri”, Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi, 9(1), 35-46.
19. Dağlı, A. Elçiçek, Z. & Han, B. (2018). “Adaptation of the ‘Organizational Commitment Scale’ Into Turkish: Validity and Reliability Study”, Electronic Journal of Social Sciences, 17(68), 1765-1777.
20. Davey, S., & Davey, A. (2014). “Assessment of smartphone addiction in Indian adolescents: A mixed method study by systematic-review and meta-analysis approach”, International Journal of Preventive Medicine, 5(12), 1500–1511.
21. David, M. E., Roberts, J. A., & Christenson, B. (2018). “Too much of a good thing: Investigating the association between actual smartphone use and individual wellbeing”, International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 34(3), 265-275.
22. Demirci, K., Akgonul, M., & Akpinar, A. (2015). “Relationship of smartphone use severity with sleep quality, depression, and anxiety in university students”, Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 4(2), 85–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/2006.4.2015.010.
23. Demirci, K., Orhan, H., Demirdas, A., Akpınar, A. & Sert, H. (2014). “Validity and reliability of the Turkish Version of the Smartphone Addiction Scale in a younger population”, Bulletin of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 24(3), 226-234.
24. Digital (2019) Global digital overview, accessed on 27.07.2019, https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2019-global-digital-overview.
25. DiMicco, J., Millen, D. R., Geyer, W., Dugan, C., Brownholtz, B. and Muller, M. (2008). “Motivations for social networking at work”, paper presented at the Proceedings of the 2008 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work, San Diego, CA, November 8-12.
26. Duke, E. and Montag, C. (2017). “Smartphone addiction, daily interruptions and self-reported productivity”, Addictive Behaviors Reports, 6, 90–95.
27. Elhai, J. D., Dvorak, R. D., Levine, J. C., & Hall, B. J. (2017). “Problematic smartphone use: A conceptual overview and systematic review of relations with anxiety and depression psychopathology”. Journal of Affective Disorders, 207, 251-259. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.08.03.
28. Enez Darcin, A., S. Kose, C. O. Noyan, S. Nurmedov, O. Yılmaz, & N. Dilbaz (2016). “Smartphone Addiction and Its Relationship with Social Anxiety and Loneliness.” Behaviour & Information Technology, 35(7), 520–525.
29. Giunchiglia, F., Zeni, M., Gobbi, E., Bignotti, E., Bison, I. (2018). “Mobile social media usage and academic performance”, Computers in Human Behavior, 82, 177-185.
30. Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). “Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error”, Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50.
31. Green, S. G., Anderson, S. E., & Shivers, S. L. (1996). “Demographics and organizational influences on leader-member exchange and related work attitudes”, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 66, 203-214.
32. Hobsor, C. J., Linda, D. & Dawn, K. (2001). “Compelling evidence of the need for corporate work/life balance initiatives: results from a national survey of stressful life-events”, Journal of Employment Counseling, 38(1), 38-44.
33. Hong, F., Chiu, S., & Husang, D. (2012). “A model of the relationship between psychological characteristics, mobile phone addiction and the use of mobile phones by Taiwanese university female students”, Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 2152-2159. http://dx.doi.Org/10.1016/i.chb.2012.06.020.
34. Horwood, S. & Anglim, J. (2019). “Problematic smartphone usage and subjective and psychological well-being”, Computers in Human Behavior, 97, 44–50.
35. Hsiao, K. L., Shu, Y., & Huang, T. C. (2017). “Exploring the effect of com-pulsive social app usage on technostress and academic performance: Perspectives from personality traits”, Telematics and Informatics, 34(2), 679-690.
36. Huang, T. C., & Hsiao, W. J. (2007). “The causal relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment”, Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 35(9), 1265-1276.
37. Hughes, N., & Burke, J. (2018). “Sleeping with the frenemy: How restricting ‘bedroom use’ of smartphones impacts happiness and wellbeing”, Computers in Human Behavior, 85, 236-244.
38. Huh, J., Jones, L., Erickson, T., Kellogg, W. A., Bellamy, R. K. E., & Thomas, J. C. (2007). BlogCentral: The role of internal blogs at work. In CHI’07 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems (pp. 2447-2452). New York, NY, USA: ACM.
39. Jeong, H. S., & Lee, Y. S. (2015). “Factors influencing smartphone addiction in nursing students: Focused on empathy”, Information, 18(6), 2885-2890.
40. Judd, T. (2014). “Making sense of multitasking: the role of Facebook”, Computers & Education, 70, 194-202.
41. Judge, T. A., Thoresen, C.J., Bono, J. E. and Patton, G. K. (2001). “The job satisfaction–job performance relationship: a qualitative and quantitative review”, Psychological Bulletin, 127(3), 376-407.
42. Kang, S., & Jung, J. (2014). “Mobile communication for human needs: A comparison of smartphone use between the US and Korea”, Computers in Human Behavior, 35, 376-387.
43. Kanwar, Y. P. S., Singh, A. K. & Kodwani, A. D. (2009). “Work-life balance and burnout as predictors of job satisfaction in the IT-ITES industry”, Vision, 13(2), 1-12.
44. Karr-Wisniewski, P., & Lu, Y. (2010). “When more is too much: Operationalizing technology overload and exploring its impact on knowledge worker productivity”, Computers in Human Behavior, 26(5), 1061-1072.
45. Kelly Services (2012). When worlds collide – The rise of social media for professional and personal use. Retrieved August 7, 2019, from https://www.scribd.com/document/98418685/When-Worlds-Collide-The-rise-of-social-media-for-Professionals-and-Personal-Use.
46. Kelly, E. L., Moen, P., Oakes, J. M., Fan, W., Okechukwu, C., Davis, K. D., ... Casper, L. M. (2014). “Changing work and work-family conflict: Evidence from the work, family, and health network”, American Sociological Review, 79 (3), 485-516. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122414531435.
47. Kibona, L., & Mgaya, G. (2015). “Smartphones’ Effects on Academic Performance of Higher Learning Students.” Journal of Multidisciplinary Engineering Science and Technology, 2(4), 777–784.
48. Kim, H. J., Min, J. Y., Kim, H. J., & Min, K. B. (2017). “Association between psychological and self-assessed health status and smartphone overuse among Korean college students”, Journal of Mental Health, 1-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09638237.2017.1370641.
49. Kim, J., & Lee, J. E. R. (2011). “The Facebook paths to happiness: Effects of the number of Facebook friends and self-presentation on subjective well-being”, Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14, 359-364. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2010.0374.
50. Kirkman, B. L., & Rosen, B. (1999). “Beyond self-management: antecedents and consequences of team empowerment”, The Academy of Management Journal, 42(1), 58-74.
51. Kirschner, P. A., & Karpinski, A. C. (2010). “Facebook and academic performance”, Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1237-1245.
52. Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2017). “Social networking sites and addiction: Ten lessons learned”, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(3), e311.
53. Kwon M, Kim D-J, Cho H, Yang S (2013). “The Smartphone Addiction Scale: Development and Validation of a Short Version for Adolescents”, PLoS ONE, 8(12): e83558.
54. Lanaj, K., Johnson, R. E., & Barnes, C. M. (2014). “Beginning the workday yet already depleted? Consequences of late-night smartphone use and sleep”, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 124(1), 11–23.
55. Lapierre, M. A., & Lewis, M. N. (2018). “Should it stay or should it go now? Smartphones and relational health”, Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 7(3), 384-398.
56. Lee, H., Ahn, H., Choi, S., & Choi, W. (2014). “The SAMS: Smartphone addiction management system and verification”, Journal of Medical Systems, 38(1) http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10916-013-0001-1.
57. Leftheriotis, I., & Giannakos, M. N. (2014). “Using social media for work: Losing your time or improving your work?”, Computers in Human Behavior, 31, 134-142. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.016.
58. Leidner, D., Koch, H. and Gonzalez, E. (2010), “Assimilating generation Y IT new hires into USAA’s workforce: the role of an enterprise 2.0 system”, MIS Quarterly Executive, 9(4), 229-242.
59. Leiter, M. P., & Maslach, C. (1988). “The impact of interpersonal environment on burnout and organizational commitment”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, 9, 297-308. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/job.4030090402.
60. Lepp, A., Barkley, J. E., & Karpinski, A. C. (2015). “The relationship between cell phone use and academic performance in a sample of us college students”, Sage Open, 1-9, https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2158244015573169.
61. Lepp, A., Barkley, J. E., & Karpinski, A. C. (2014). “The Relationship Between Cell Phone Use, Academic Performance, Anxiety, and Satisfaction with Life in College Students” Computers in Human Behavior, 31, 343-350.
62. Locke, E. A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In M. D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally College.
63. Long, J., Liu, T.-Q., Liao, Y.-H., Qi, C., He, H.-Y., Chen, S.-B. (2016). “Prevalence and correlates of problematic smartphone use in a large random sample of Chinese undergraduates”, BMC Psychiatry, 16(1), 408.
64. Malik, M. I., Saleem, F. & Ahmad, M. (2010). “Work-life balance and job satisfaction among doctors in Pakistan”, South Asian Journal of Management, 17(2), 112-123.
65. Mansi, G., & Levy, Y. (2013). “Do instant messaging interruptions help or hinder knowledge workers’ task performance?”, International Journal of Information Management, 33(3), 591-596.
66. Mathews, B. P. & Shepherd, J. L. (2002). “Dimensionality of Cook and Wall's (1980) British Organizational Commitment Scale revisited”, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 75, 369-375.
67. McAfee, A. P. (2006). “Enterprise 2.0: The dawn of emergent collaboration”, MIT Sloan Management Review, 47(3), 21-28.
68. Meyer, J. P., Allen, N. J. & Smith, C. A. (1993). “Commitment to organizations and occupations: Extension and test of a three-component conceptualization”, Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 538-551.
69. Meyer, J. P., Stanley, D. J., Herscovitch, L. & Topolnytsky, L. (2002). “Affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization: a meta-analysis of antecedents, correlates, and consequences”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 61(1), 20-52.
70. Meyer, J. P. (2009). Commitment in a changing world of work. In: Becker, Thomas E.; Klein, Howard J; Meyer, John P. (Org). Commitment in organizations: accumulated wisdom and new directions New York; Londres: Routledge, 2009. p. 37-68.
71. Montag, C., & Walla, P. (2016). “Carpe diem instead of losing your social mind: Beyond digital addiction and why we all suffer from digital overuse”, Cogent Psychology, 3(1), 1157281. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2016.1157281.
72. Mowday, R. T., Steers, R. M., & Porter, L. W. (1979). “The measurement of organizational commitment”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 14(2), 224-247.
73. Mowday, R., Porter, L. and Steers, R. (1982), Employee-Organization Linkages: The Psychology of Commitment, Absenteeism, and Turnover, Academic Press, New York, NY.
74. Müller, K. W., Glaesmer, H., Brähler, E., Woelfling, K., & Beutel, M. E. (2014). “Prevalence of Internet Addiction in the General Population: Results from a German Population- Based Survey.” Behavior & Information Technology, 33 (7), 757-766.
75. Nucleus (2009). Facebook: Measuring the Cost to Business of Social Networking, Nucleus Research Inc, Boston, MA.
76. Park, N., & Lee, H. (2012). “Social implications of smartphone use: Korean college students’ smartphone use and psychological well-being”, Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(9), 491-497. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2011.0580.
77. Patel, N. & Jasani, H. (2010). “Social media security policies: guidelines for organizations”, Issues in Information Systems, 11(1), 628-634.
78. Porter, L., Steers, R., Mowday, R., & Boulian, P. (1974). “Organizational commitment, job satisfaction and turnover among psychiatric technicians”, Journal of Applied Psychology, 59, 603-609.
79. Rehman, M. S. (2011). “Exploring the impact of human resources management on organizational performance: A study of public sector organizations”, Journal of Business Studies Quarterly, 2, 1-16.
80. Rosen, L. D., Carrier, L. M., & Cheever, N. A. (2013). “Facebook and texting made me do it: Media-induced task-switching while studying”, Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 948–958.
81. Rotondi, V., Stanca, L., & Tomasuolo, M. (2017). “Connecting alone: Smartphone use, quality of social interactions and well-being”, Journal of Economic Psychology, 63, 17-26.
82. Samaha, M., & Hawi, N. S. (2016). “Relationships among smartphone addiction, stress, academic performance, and satisfaction with life”, Computers in Human Behavior, 57, 321–325.
83. Schmidt, S. W. (2007), “The relationship between satisfaction with workplace training and overall job satisfaction”, Human Resource Development Quarterly, 18(4), 481-498.
84. Scott, C. R., & Stephens, K. K. (2009). “It depends on who you're talking to … : Predictors and outcomes of situated measures of organizational identification”, Western Journal of Communication, 73, 370-394. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10570310903279075.
85. Sigler, T. H. & Pearson, C. M. (2000). “Creating an empowering culture: examining the relationship between organizational culture and perceptions of empowerment”, Journal of Quality Management, 5, 27-52.
86. Shepherd, C. (2011), “Does social media have a place in workplace learning?”, Strategic Direction, 27(2), 3-4.
87. Smith, K. T., Smith, L. M., & Brower, T. R. (2016). How Work-Life Balance, Job Performance, and Ethics Connect: Perspectives of Current and Future Accountants. In C. Jeffrey (Ed.), Research on Professional Responsibility and Ethics in Accounting (pp. 219-238). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1574-076520160000020008.
88. Takao, M., Takahashi, S., & Kitamura, M. (2009). “Addictive personality and problematic mobile phone use”, Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 12(5), 501-507. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2009.0022.
89. Valkenburg, P. M., Peter, J., & Schouten, A. P. (2006). Friend networking sites and their relationship to adolescents' well-being and social self-esteem. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 9, 584-590. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2006.9.584.
90. Van Deursen, A., Bolle, C. L., Hegner, S. M., & Kommers, P. A. (2015). “Modeling habitual and addictive smartphone behavior: The role of smartphone usage types, emotional intelligence, social stress, self-regulation, age, and gender”, Computers in Human Behavior, 45, 411–420.
91. Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (1992). “Examining the causal order of job satisfaction and organizational commitment”, Journal of Management, 18(1), 153-167.
92. Wang, C., Lee, M. K., & Hua, Z. (2015). “A theory of social media dependence: Evidence from microblog users”, Decision Support Systems, 69, 40–49.
93. White, E., & Thatcher, A. (2015). How mobile phones affect the sustainability of the work/life balance of their users. Foundations of Augmented Cognition In D. D. Schmorrow, & C. M. Fidopiastis (Eds.). Proceedings of the 9th international conference AC 2015, Los Angeles, CA, USA, August 2-7 (pp. 393–400). Springer International Publishing.
94. Yıldız Durak, H. (2017). “Investigation of nomophobia and smartphone addiction predictors among adolescents in Turkey: Demographic variables and academic performance”, The Social Science Journal, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2018.09.003.
95. Zijlstra, F. R. H., Roe, R. A., Leonora, A. B., & Krediet, I. (1999). “Temporal factors in mental work: Effects of interrupted activities”, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 72, 163-185.