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Spatial ability test for university students: Development, validity and reliability studies

Year 2023, , 76 - 97, 20.03.2023
https://doi.org/10.21449/ijate.1102435

Abstract

This study aimed to develop a useful test to measure university students’ spatial abilities validly and reliably. Following a sequential explanatory mixed methods research design, first, qualitative methods were used to develop the trial items for the test; next, the psychometric properties of the test were analyzed through quantitative methods using data obtained from 456 university students. As a result, a multiple-choice spatial ability test with 27 items and five options was created, divided into three subtests: spatial relations, spatial visualization, and spatial orientation. The results suggested that scores obtained from the spatial ability test and its subtests are valid and reliable.

References

  • Abdi, H. (2010). Holm's sequential Bonferroni procedure. In N. Salkind (Eds.), Encyclopedia of research design (pp. 1-8). Sage Publication.
  • Bakker, M. (2008). Spatial ability in primary school: Effects of the Tridio® learning material [Master's thesis]. University of Twente.
  • Bandalos, D.L. (2018). Measurement theory and applications for the social sciences (1st ed.). Guilford Publications.
  • Battista, M.T., Wheatley, G.H., & Talsma, G. (1982). The importance of spatial visualization and cognitive development for geometry learning in preservice elementary teachers. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 13(5), 332 340. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.13.5.0332
  • Barnea, N. (2000). Teaching and Learning about Chemistry and Modelling with a Computer managed Modelling System. In Gilbert J.K., Boulter C.J. (Eds.), Developing Models in Science Education (pp. 307-323). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0876-1_16
  • Brooks, G.P., & Johanson, G.A. (2003). TAP: Test Analysis Program. Applied Psychological Measurement, 27(4), 303-304. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146621603027004007
  • Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research (1st ed.). The Guilford Press.
  • Burnett, S.A., & Lane, D.M. (1980). Effects of academic instruction on spatial visualization. Intelligence, 4(3), 233-242. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-2896(80)90021-5
  • Cameron, A. (2004). Kurtosis. In M. Lewis-Beck, A. Bryman and T. Liao (Eds.). Encyclopedia of social science research methods (pp. 544-545). SAGE Publications, Inc.
  • Campos, A., & Campos-Juanatey, D. (2020). Measure of spatial orientation ability. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 39(4), 348 357. https://doi.org/10.1177/0276236619896268
  • Carroll, J.B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies (No. 1). Cambridge University Press.
  • Clements, D.H. (1998). Geometric and spatial thinking in young children. National Science Foundation.
  • Clements, D.H., & Battista, M.T. (1992). Geometry and spatial reasoning. In D.A. Grouws (Eds.), Handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 420-464). Macmillan.
  • Contero, M., Naya, F., Company, P., Saorín, J.L., & Conesa, J. (2005). Improving visualization skills in engineering education. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 25(5), 24-31. https://doi.org/10.1109/MCG.2005.107
  • Contreras, M.J., Escrig, R., Prieto, G., & Elosúa, M.R. (2018). Spatial visualization ability improves with and without studying Technical Drawing. Cognitive processing, 19(3), 387-397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-018-0859-4
  • Creswell, J.W., & Plano Clark, V.L. (2011) Designing and conducting mixed methods research (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.
  • Crocker, L., & Algina, J. (2008). Introduction to classical and modern test theory. Cengage Learning.
  • D'Oliveira, T.C. (2004). Dynamic spatial ability: An exploratory analysis and a confirmatory study. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 14(1), 19-38. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327108ijap1401_2
  • Davis, L.L. (1992). Instrument review: getting the most from a panel of experts. Applied Nursing Research, 5, 194-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0897-1897(05)80008-4
  • Diederich, P.B. (1973). Short-cut statistics for teacher-made tests. Educational testing service. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED081785.pdf
  • Dokumacı Sütçü, N. (2021). Research tendencies towards spatial ability in Turkey. International Journal of Society Researches, 17(36), 2605 2636. https://doi.org/10.26466/opus.839496
  • Downing, S.M. (2006). Twelve steps for effective test development. In S.M. Downing & T.M. Haladyna (Eds.), Handbook of test development (pp. 3–26). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Ebel, R.L., & Frisbie, D.A. (1991). Essentials of educational measurement (5th ed.). Prentice-Hall.
  • Ekstrom, R.B., French, J.W., Harman, H.H., & Dermen, D. (1976). Manual for kit of factor-referenced cognitive tests. Educational Testing Service.
  • Eliot, J., & Hauptman, A. (1981). Different dimensions of spatial ability. Studies in Science Education, 8(1), 45-66. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057268108559886
  • Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. Basic Books.
  • Gilligan, K.A., Flouri, E., & Farran, E.K. (2017). The contribution of spatial ability to mathematics achievement in middle childhood. Journal of experimental child psychology, 163, 107-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2017.04.016
  • Gronlund, N.E. (1977). Constructing achievement tests (2nd ed.). Prentice-Hall.
  • Guay, R.B. (1977). Purdue spatial visualization test. Purdue Research Foundation.
  • Guilford, J.P., Fruchter, B., & Zimmerman, W.S. (1952). Factor analysis of the army air forces sheppard field battery of experimental aptitude tests. Psychometrika, 17(1), 45–68. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02288795
  • Guilford, J.P., & Zimmerman, W.S. (1948). The Guilford-Zimmerman Aptitude Survey. Journal of applied Psychology, 32(1), 24-34. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0063610
  • Hair, J.F., Jr., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E., & Tatham, R.L. (2014). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Pearson New International Edition.
  • Hambleton, R.K., & Jirka, S.J. (2006). Anchor-based methods for judgmentally estimating item statistics. In Downing, S.M., & Haladyna, T.M. (Eds.). Handbook of test development (pp. 399-420). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
  • Hegarty, M., & Waller, D. (2004). A dissociation between mental rotation and perspective-taking spatial abilities. Intelligence, 32(2), 175 191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2003.12.001
  • Hingorjo, M.R., & Jaleel, F. (2012). Analysis of one-best MCQs: the difficulty index, discrimination index and distractor efficiency. JPMA-Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association, 62(2), 142-147. https://www.jpma.org.pk/PdfDownload/3255
  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P.M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
  • Irwing, P., Booth, T., & Hughes, D.J. (2018). The Wiley handbook of psychometric testing. A Multidisciplinary Reference on Survey, Scale and Test Development. Wiley-Blackwell.
  • İpekoğlu, A., Kepceoğlu, İ. & Biber, A.Ç. (2020). Thematic and methodological trends of graduate theses related to spatial ability: the case of Turkey. International Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies, 6(2), 681 699. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/intjces/issue/59193/829670
  • Jöreskog, K.G. & Sörbom, D. (1993). LISREL 8: Structural Equations Modeling with the SIMPLES Command Language. Scientific Software, International.
  • Jöreskog, K.G. & Sörbom, D. (1996). Lisrell 8 reference guide. Scientific Software International.
  • Kell, H.J., Lubinski, D., Benbow, C.P., & Steiger, J.H. (2013). Creativity and technical innovation: Spatial ability’s unique role. Psychological Science, 24(9), 1831-1836. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613478615
  • Kerkman, D.D., Wise, J.C., & Harwood, E.A. (2000). Impossible “mental rotation” problems: A mismeasure of women's spatial abilities?. Learning and Individual Differences, 12(3), 253-269. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1041-6080(01)00039-5
  • Kim, J., & Irizarry, J. (2021). Evaluating the use of augmented reality technology to improve construction management student’s spatial skills. International Journal of Construction Education and Research, 17(2), 99 116. https://doi.org/10.1080/15578771.2020.1717680
  • Kline, R.B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford Press.
  • Kozhevnikov, M., & Hegarty, M. (2001). A dissociation between object manipulation spatial ability and spatial orientation ability. Memory & Cognition, 29(5), 745-756. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03200477
  • Likert, R., & Quasha, W.H. (1941). Revised Minnesota Paper Form Board. Psychological Corporation.
  • Linn, M., & Petersen, A.C. (1985). Emergence and characterization of sex differences in spatial ability: A meta analysis. Child Development, 56(6), 1479 1498. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1130467
  • Livingston, S.A. (2006). Item Analysis. In Downing, S. M., & Haladyna, T. M. (Eds.). Handbook of test development (pp. 421-441). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
  • Lohman, D.F. (1979). Spatial ability: A review and reanalysis of the correlational literature. Technical Report. No. 8, Stanford University. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA075972.pdf
  • Lohman, D.F. (1993, July 8). Spatial ability and g. Paper presented at the first Spearman Seminar, University of Plymouth, England. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.111.7385&rep=rep1&type=pdf
  • Lord, T.R. (1985). Enhancing the visuo‐spatial aptitude of students. Journal of research in science teaching, 22(5), 395-405. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660220503
  • Maier, P.H. (1996, March). Spatial geometry and spatial ability–How to make solid geometry solid. In Selected papers from the Annual Conference of Didactics of Mathematics (pp. 69-81). http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/e/gdm/1996/maier.pdf
  • Martín‐Dorta, N., Saorín, J.L., & Contero, M. (2008). Development of a fast remedial course to improve the spatial abilities of engineering students. Journal of Engineering Education, 97(4), 505-513. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2168-9830.2008.tb00996.x
  • McGee, M.G. (1979). Human spatial abilities: Psychometric studies and environmental, genetic, hormonal, and neurological influences. Psychological Bulletin, 86(5), 889–918. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.5.889
  • Mohler, J.L. (2008). Examining the spatial ability phenomenon from the student's perspective. The Engineering Design Graphics Journal, 72(3), 1 15. http://gpejournal.org/index.php/EDGJ/article/view/50
  • National Research Council (NRC) (2006). Learning to think spatially. National Academies Press.
  • Olkun, S. (2003). Making connections: Improving spatial abilities with engineering drawing activities. International Journal of Mathematics Teaching and Learning, 3(1), 1-10. http://www.ex.ac.uk/cimt/ijmtl/ijabout.htm
  • Olkun, S., Smith, G.G., Gerretson, H., Yuan, Y., & Joutsenlahti, J. (2009). Comparing and enhancing spatial skills of pre-service elementary school teachers in Finland, Taiwan, USA, and Turkey. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1(1), 1545-1548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.271
  • Ozcakir Sumen, O. (2019). A meta-synthesis about the studies on spatial skills in Turkey. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 11(4), 23-41. https://doi.org/10.15345/iojes.2019.04.003
  • Patkin, D., & Dayan, E. (2013). The intelligence of observation: improving high school students’ spatial ability by means of intervention unit. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 44(2), 179-195. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2012.703335
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Spatial ability test for university students: Development, validity and reliability studies

Year 2023, , 76 - 97, 20.03.2023
https://doi.org/10.21449/ijate.1102435

Abstract

This study aimed to develop a useful test to measure university students’ spatial abilities validly and reliably. Following a sequential explanatory mixed methods research design, first, qualitative methods were used to develop the trial items for the test; next, the psychometric properties of the test were analyzed through quantitative methods using data obtained from 456 university students. As a result, a multiple-choice spatial ability test with 27 items and five options was created, divided into three subtests: spatial relations, spatial visualization, and spatial orientation. The results suggested that scores obtained from the spatial ability test and its subtests are valid and reliable.

References

  • Abdi, H. (2010). Holm's sequential Bonferroni procedure. In N. Salkind (Eds.), Encyclopedia of research design (pp. 1-8). Sage Publication.
  • Bakker, M. (2008). Spatial ability in primary school: Effects of the Tridio® learning material [Master's thesis]. University of Twente.
  • Bandalos, D.L. (2018). Measurement theory and applications for the social sciences (1st ed.). Guilford Publications.
  • Battista, M.T., Wheatley, G.H., & Talsma, G. (1982). The importance of spatial visualization and cognitive development for geometry learning in preservice elementary teachers. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 13(5), 332 340. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.13.5.0332
  • Barnea, N. (2000). Teaching and Learning about Chemistry and Modelling with a Computer managed Modelling System. In Gilbert J.K., Boulter C.J. (Eds.), Developing Models in Science Education (pp. 307-323). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0876-1_16
  • Brooks, G.P., & Johanson, G.A. (2003). TAP: Test Analysis Program. Applied Psychological Measurement, 27(4), 303-304. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146621603027004007
  • Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research (1st ed.). The Guilford Press.
  • Burnett, S.A., & Lane, D.M. (1980). Effects of academic instruction on spatial visualization. Intelligence, 4(3), 233-242. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-2896(80)90021-5
  • Cameron, A. (2004). Kurtosis. In M. Lewis-Beck, A. Bryman and T. Liao (Eds.). Encyclopedia of social science research methods (pp. 544-545). SAGE Publications, Inc.
  • Campos, A., & Campos-Juanatey, D. (2020). Measure of spatial orientation ability. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 39(4), 348 357. https://doi.org/10.1177/0276236619896268
  • Carroll, J.B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies (No. 1). Cambridge University Press.
  • Clements, D.H. (1998). Geometric and spatial thinking in young children. National Science Foundation.
  • Clements, D.H., & Battista, M.T. (1992). Geometry and spatial reasoning. In D.A. Grouws (Eds.), Handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 420-464). Macmillan.
  • Contero, M., Naya, F., Company, P., Saorín, J.L., & Conesa, J. (2005). Improving visualization skills in engineering education. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 25(5), 24-31. https://doi.org/10.1109/MCG.2005.107
  • Contreras, M.J., Escrig, R., Prieto, G., & Elosúa, M.R. (2018). Spatial visualization ability improves with and without studying Technical Drawing. Cognitive processing, 19(3), 387-397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-018-0859-4
  • Creswell, J.W., & Plano Clark, V.L. (2011) Designing and conducting mixed methods research (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.
  • Crocker, L., & Algina, J. (2008). Introduction to classical and modern test theory. Cengage Learning.
  • D'Oliveira, T.C. (2004). Dynamic spatial ability: An exploratory analysis and a confirmatory study. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 14(1), 19-38. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327108ijap1401_2
  • Davis, L.L. (1992). Instrument review: getting the most from a panel of experts. Applied Nursing Research, 5, 194-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0897-1897(05)80008-4
  • Diederich, P.B. (1973). Short-cut statistics for teacher-made tests. Educational testing service. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED081785.pdf
  • Dokumacı Sütçü, N. (2021). Research tendencies towards spatial ability in Turkey. International Journal of Society Researches, 17(36), 2605 2636. https://doi.org/10.26466/opus.839496
  • Downing, S.M. (2006). Twelve steps for effective test development. In S.M. Downing & T.M. Haladyna (Eds.), Handbook of test development (pp. 3–26). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Ebel, R.L., & Frisbie, D.A. (1991). Essentials of educational measurement (5th ed.). Prentice-Hall.
  • Ekstrom, R.B., French, J.W., Harman, H.H., & Dermen, D. (1976). Manual for kit of factor-referenced cognitive tests. Educational Testing Service.
  • Eliot, J., & Hauptman, A. (1981). Different dimensions of spatial ability. Studies in Science Education, 8(1), 45-66. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057268108559886
  • Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. Basic Books.
  • Gilligan, K.A., Flouri, E., & Farran, E.K. (2017). The contribution of spatial ability to mathematics achievement in middle childhood. Journal of experimental child psychology, 163, 107-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2017.04.016
  • Gronlund, N.E. (1977). Constructing achievement tests (2nd ed.). Prentice-Hall.
  • Guay, R.B. (1977). Purdue spatial visualization test. Purdue Research Foundation.
  • Guilford, J.P., Fruchter, B., & Zimmerman, W.S. (1952). Factor analysis of the army air forces sheppard field battery of experimental aptitude tests. Psychometrika, 17(1), 45–68. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02288795
  • Guilford, J.P., & Zimmerman, W.S. (1948). The Guilford-Zimmerman Aptitude Survey. Journal of applied Psychology, 32(1), 24-34. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0063610
  • Hair, J.F., Jr., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E., & Tatham, R.L. (2014). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Pearson New International Edition.
  • Hambleton, R.K., & Jirka, S.J. (2006). Anchor-based methods for judgmentally estimating item statistics. In Downing, S.M., & Haladyna, T.M. (Eds.). Handbook of test development (pp. 399-420). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
  • Hegarty, M., & Waller, D. (2004). A dissociation between mental rotation and perspective-taking spatial abilities. Intelligence, 32(2), 175 191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2003.12.001
  • Hingorjo, M.R., & Jaleel, F. (2012). Analysis of one-best MCQs: the difficulty index, discrimination index and distractor efficiency. JPMA-Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association, 62(2), 142-147. https://www.jpma.org.pk/PdfDownload/3255
  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P.M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
  • Irwing, P., Booth, T., & Hughes, D.J. (2018). The Wiley handbook of psychometric testing. A Multidisciplinary Reference on Survey, Scale and Test Development. Wiley-Blackwell.
  • İpekoğlu, A., Kepceoğlu, İ. & Biber, A.Ç. (2020). Thematic and methodological trends of graduate theses related to spatial ability: the case of Turkey. International Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies, 6(2), 681 699. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/intjces/issue/59193/829670
  • Jöreskog, K.G. & Sörbom, D. (1993). LISREL 8: Structural Equations Modeling with the SIMPLES Command Language. Scientific Software, International.
  • Jöreskog, K.G. & Sörbom, D. (1996). Lisrell 8 reference guide. Scientific Software International.
  • Kell, H.J., Lubinski, D., Benbow, C.P., & Steiger, J.H. (2013). Creativity and technical innovation: Spatial ability’s unique role. Psychological Science, 24(9), 1831-1836. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613478615
  • Kerkman, D.D., Wise, J.C., & Harwood, E.A. (2000). Impossible “mental rotation” problems: A mismeasure of women's spatial abilities?. Learning and Individual Differences, 12(3), 253-269. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1041-6080(01)00039-5
  • Kim, J., & Irizarry, J. (2021). Evaluating the use of augmented reality technology to improve construction management student’s spatial skills. International Journal of Construction Education and Research, 17(2), 99 116. https://doi.org/10.1080/15578771.2020.1717680
  • Kline, R.B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford Press.
  • Kozhevnikov, M., & Hegarty, M. (2001). A dissociation between object manipulation spatial ability and spatial orientation ability. Memory & Cognition, 29(5), 745-756. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03200477
  • Likert, R., & Quasha, W.H. (1941). Revised Minnesota Paper Form Board. Psychological Corporation.
  • Linn, M., & Petersen, A.C. (1985). Emergence and characterization of sex differences in spatial ability: A meta analysis. Child Development, 56(6), 1479 1498. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1130467
  • Livingston, S.A. (2006). Item Analysis. In Downing, S. M., & Haladyna, T. M. (Eds.). Handbook of test development (pp. 421-441). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
  • Lohman, D.F. (1979). Spatial ability: A review and reanalysis of the correlational literature. Technical Report. No. 8, Stanford University. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA075972.pdf
  • Lohman, D.F. (1993, July 8). Spatial ability and g. Paper presented at the first Spearman Seminar, University of Plymouth, England. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.111.7385&rep=rep1&type=pdf
  • Lord, T.R. (1985). Enhancing the visuo‐spatial aptitude of students. Journal of research in science teaching, 22(5), 395-405. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660220503
  • Maier, P.H. (1996, March). Spatial geometry and spatial ability–How to make solid geometry solid. In Selected papers from the Annual Conference of Didactics of Mathematics (pp. 69-81). http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/ebook/e/gdm/1996/maier.pdf
  • Martín‐Dorta, N., Saorín, J.L., & Contero, M. (2008). Development of a fast remedial course to improve the spatial abilities of engineering students. Journal of Engineering Education, 97(4), 505-513. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2168-9830.2008.tb00996.x
  • McGee, M.G. (1979). Human spatial abilities: Psychometric studies and environmental, genetic, hormonal, and neurological influences. Psychological Bulletin, 86(5), 889–918. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.5.889
  • Mohler, J.L. (2008). Examining the spatial ability phenomenon from the student's perspective. The Engineering Design Graphics Journal, 72(3), 1 15. http://gpejournal.org/index.php/EDGJ/article/view/50
  • National Research Council (NRC) (2006). Learning to think spatially. National Academies Press.
  • Olkun, S. (2003). Making connections: Improving spatial abilities with engineering drawing activities. International Journal of Mathematics Teaching and Learning, 3(1), 1-10. http://www.ex.ac.uk/cimt/ijmtl/ijabout.htm
  • Olkun, S., Smith, G.G., Gerretson, H., Yuan, Y., & Joutsenlahti, J. (2009). Comparing and enhancing spatial skills of pre-service elementary school teachers in Finland, Taiwan, USA, and Turkey. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1(1), 1545-1548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.271
  • Ozcakir Sumen, O. (2019). A meta-synthesis about the studies on spatial skills in Turkey. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 11(4), 23-41. https://doi.org/10.15345/iojes.2019.04.003
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There are 76 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Other Fields of Education
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Kübra Açıkgül 0000-0003-2656-8916

Süleyman Nihat Şad 0000-0002-3169-2375

Bilal Altay 0000-0002-2400-7122

Publication Date March 20, 2023
Submission Date April 12, 2022
Published in Issue Year 2023

Cite

APA Açıkgül, K., Şad, S. N., & Altay, B. (2023). Spatial ability test for university students: Development, validity and reliability studies. International Journal of Assessment Tools in Education, 10(1), 76-97. https://doi.org/10.21449/ijate.1102435

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