Yapay et üretimi ve gelecek vizyonu

Öz

Yapay et gelecekteki gıda üretiminde kullanılmak üzere bir yöntem olarak büyük umut vadetmektedir. Geleneksel etin, artan insan nüfusu ile birlikte yetersiz kalacağı ön görülmektedir. Ayrıca yapay etin geleneksel ete kıyasla çevre için sürdürülebilir olması, kontrollü yağ içeriği, antibiyotik ve hormon içermemesi gibi insan sağlığı açısından pek çok avantajı bulunmaktadır. Kültürlenmiş et olarak da bilinen yapay et, kas dokusu bazlı protein ürünleri, kök hücre kültürü ve farklılaşmasını içeren in vitro miyogenez, lezzet ve doku için ise olgun kas hücresi işleme yoluyla üretilmektedir. Yapay et üretimi sıralı bir süreçten oluşmaktadır. İlk olarak kök hücre toplama için kas örneklemesi ve sırasıyla kas dokusu ayrışması ve kas kök hücre izolasyonu, birincil hücre kültürü, yüksek hücre kültürü, kas farklılaşması ve olgunlaşma ile son bulmaktadır. Sürecin olumlu ve olumsuz yanlarıyla birlikte derinlemesine anlaşılması, yalnızca yapay et üretimine değil, aynı zamanda gıda endüstrisi için yeni biyomalzemeler arayan iş sektörlerine de yardımcı olacaktır. Bu derleme, yapay et üretimi için kullanılan yöntemleri tartışarak hem hücresel tarımın yeni çağına hazırlanmak hem de akademi ve endüstride kullanılmak üzere hazırlanmıştır. 

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Yapay et
• Kas kök hücreleri
• Biyoreaktör
• Biyosensör

Artificial meat production and future vision

Abstract

Artificial meat shows great promise as a method for use in future food production. It is predicted that traditional meat will be insufficient with the increasing human population. In addition, artificial meat has many advantages in terms of human health, such as being sustainable for the environment, controlled fat content, and absence of antibiotics and hormones compared to traditional meat. Artificial meat, also known as cultured meat, is produced through in vitro myogenesis, which includes muscle tissue-based protein products, stem cell culture, and differentiation, and mature muscle cell processing for flavor and texture. Artificial meat production consists of a sequential process; firstly muscle sampling for stem cell collection and followed by muscle tissue dissociation and muscle stem cell isolation, primary cell culture, high cell culture, and ending with muscle differentiation and maturation. A deep understanding of the process by considering its pros and cons will help not only artificial meat production but also the food industry in business sectors seeking new biomaterials. By explaining the methods utilized for artificial meat production, this study is created to prepare for the new era of cellular agriculture as well as for application in academia and industry.

Keywords

• Artificial meat
• Muscle stem cells
• Bioreactor
• Biosensor

References

1. Abdollahi, H., Harris, L.J., Zhang, P., McIlhenny, S., Srinivas, V., Tulenko, T., DiMuzio, P.J. (2011). The role of hypoxia in stem cell differentiation and therapeutics. Journal of Surgical Research, 165(1), 112-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.2009.09.057
2. Agovino, M., Casaccia, M., Ciommi, M., Ferrara, M., Marchesano, K. (2019). Agriculture, climate change and sustainability: The case of EU-28. Ecological Indicators, 105, 525-543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.04.064
3. Alexander, P., Brown, C., Arneth, A., Dias, C., Finnigan, J., Moran, D., Rounsevell, M.D. (2017). Could consumption of insects, cultured meat or imitation meat reduce global agricultural land use? Global Food Security, 15, 22-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.04.001
4. Anomaly, J. (2020). Cultured meat could prevent the next pandemic. Animal Sentience, 5(30), 5. https://doi.org/10.51291/2377-7478.1633
5. Anonim (2021). https://www.alamy.com/infographic-explaining-the-process-of-producing-artificial-meat-without-killing-animals-image389151727.html Contributor: Wirestock, Inc./Alamy Stock Photo.
6. Asakura, A., Hirai, H., Kablar, B., Morita, S., Ishibashi, J., Piras, B.A., Rudnicki, M.A. (2007). Increased survival of muscle stem cells lacking the MyoD gene after transplantation into regenerating skeletal muscle. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(42), 16552-16557. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0708145104
7. Aydın, F. (2021). Preservice science teachers perceptions of artificial meat in the context of socio-scientific issue. International e-Journal of Educational Studies, 5, 118-32. https://doi.org/10.31458/iejes.927717
8. Beutel, S., Henkel, S. (2011). In situ sensor techniques in modern bioprocess monitoring. Applied microbiology and biotechnology, 91(6), 1493-1505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-011-3470-5

9. Bhat, Z.F., Kumar, S., Fayaz, H. (2015). In vitro meat production: Challenges and benefits over conventional meat production. Journal of integrative agriculture, 14(2), 241-248. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(14)60887-X
10. Bischoff, R. (1997). Chemotaxis of skeletal muscle satellite cells. Developmental dynamics: an official publication of the American Association of Anatomists, 208(4), 505-515. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0177(199704)208:4<505::AID-AJA6>3.0.CO;2-M
11. Bogliotti, Y.S., Wu, J., Vilarino, M., Okamura, D., Soto, D. A., Zhong, C., Belmonte, J.C.I. (2018). Efficient derivation of stable primed pluripotent embryonic stem cells from bovine blastocysts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(9), 2090-2095. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1716161115
12. Bonny, S.P., Gardner, G.E., Pethick, D.W., Hocquette, J.F. (2015). What is artificial meat and what does it mean for the future of the meat industry? Journal of Integrative Agriculture, 14(2), 255-263. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(14)60888-1
13. Bredahl, L., Grunert, K.G., Fertin, C. (1998). Relating consumer perceptions of pork quality to physical product characteristics. Food Quality and Preference, 9(4), 273-281. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0950-3293(98)00007-X Chal, J., Pourquié, O. (2017). Making muscle: skeletal myogenesis in vivo and in vitro. Development, 144(12), 2104-2122. https://doi.org/10.1242/dev.151035
14. Chiles, R.M. (2013). If they come, we will build it: in vitro meat and the discursive struggle over future agrofood expectations. Agriculture and Human Values, 30(4), 511-523. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-013-9427-9
15. Choi, K.H., Lee, D.K., Kim, S.W., Woo, S.H., Kim, D.Y., Lee, C.K. (2019). Chemically defined media can maintain pig pluripotency network in vitro. Stem Cell Reports, 13(1), 221-234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stemcr.2019.05.028
16. Choi, K.H., Yoon, J.W., Kim, M., Lee, H.J., Jeong, J., Ryu, M., Lee, C.K. (2021). Muscle stem cell isolation and in vitro culture for meat production: A methodological review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 20(1), 429-457. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12661
17. Choudhury, D., Tseng, T. W., Swartz, E. (2020). The business of cultured meat. Trends in Biotechnology, 38(6), 573-577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2020.02.012
18. Cole, R. (2014). Live-cell imaging: The cell's perspective. Cell Adhesion & Migration, 8(5), 452-459. https://doi.org/10.4161/cam.28348
19. Croney, C., Apley, M., Capper, J., Mench, J., Priest, S. (2012). Bioethics Symposium: The ethical food movement: What does it mean for the role of science and scientists in current debates about animal agriculture? Journal of Animal Science, 90(5), 1570-1582. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2011-4702
20. Day, K., Shefer, G., Shearer, A., Yablonka-Reuveni, Z. (2010). The depletion of skeletal muscle satellite cells with age is concomitant with reduced capacity of single progenitors to produce reserve progeny. Developmental biology, 340(2), 330-343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ydbio.2010.01.006
21. DeFoliart, G.R. (1992). Insects as human food: Gene DeFoliart discusses some nutritional and economic aspects. Crop Protection, 11(5), 395-399. https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-2194(92)90020-6
22. Derossi, A., Bhandari, B., van Bommel, K., Noort, M., Severini, C. (2021). Could 3D food printing help to improve the food supply chain resilience against disruptions such as caused by pandemic crises?. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 56(9), 4338-4355.
23. Ding, S., Swennen, G.M., Messmer, T., Gagliardi, M., Molin, D.G., Li, C., Post, M.J. (2018). Maintaining bovine satellite cells stemness through p38 pathway. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-28746-7
24. Ding, S., Wang, F., Liu, Y., Li, S., Zhou, G., Hu, P. (2017). Characterization and isolation of highly purified porcine satellite cells. Cell Death Discovery, 3(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1038/cddiscovery.2017.3
25. Djisalov, M., Knežić, T., Podunavac, I., Živojević, K., Radonic, V., Knežević, N.Ž., Gadjanski, I. (2021). Cultivating Multidisciplinarity: Manufacturing and Sensing Challenges in Cultured Meat Production. Biology, 10(3), 204. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10030204
26. Doumit, M.E., Merkel, R.A. (1992). Conditions for isolation and culture of porcine myogenic satellite cells. Tissue and Cell, 24(2), 253-262. https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-8166(92)90098-R
27. Egbert, R., Borders, C. (2006). Achieving success with meat analogs. Food Technology (Chicago), 60(1), 28-34.
28. Elzerman, H. (2006). Substitution of meat by NPFs: Sensory properties and contextual factors. Environment and Policy, 45, 116.
29. Fernandes, A.M., Teixeira, OdS., Revillion, J.P., Souza, A. (2021). Panorama and ambiguities of cultured meat: an integrative approach. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2021.1885006
30. Fish, K.D., Rubio, N.R., Stout, A.J., Yuen, J.S., Kaplan, D.L. (2020). Prospects and challenges for cell-cultured fat as a novel food ingredient. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 98, 53-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.02.005
31. Fox, E.M., Leonard, N., Jordan, K. (2011). Molecular diversity of Listeria monocytogenes isolated from Irish dairy farms. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease, 8(5), 635-641. https://doi.org/10.1089/fpd.2010.0806
32. Fratzl, P. (2008). Collagen: Structure and mechanics, an introduction. In Collagen (pp. 1-13): Springer. ISBN: 978-0-387-73906-9 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-73906-9_1
33. Gaspar, D.A., Gomide, V., Monteiro, F.J. (2012). The role of perfusion bioreactors in bone tissue engineering. Biomatter, 2(4), 167-175. https://doi.org/10.4161/biom.22170
34. Gaydhane, M.K., Mahanta, U., Sharma, C.S., Khandelwal, M., Ramakrishna, S. (2018). Cultured meat: state of the art and future. Biomanufacturing Reviews, 3(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40898-018-0005-1
35. Gayraud-Morel, B., Chrétien, F., Flamant, P., Gomès, D., Zammit, P.S., Tajbakhsh, S. (2007). A role for the myogenic determination gene Myf5 in adult regenerative myogenesis. Developmental Biology, 312(1), 13-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ydbio.2007.08.059
36. Gibson, M.C., Schultz, E. (1983). Age‐related differences in absolute numbers of skeletal muscle satellite cells. Muscle & Nerve: Official Journal of the American Association of Electrodiagnostic Medicine, 6(8), 574-580. https://doi.org/10.1002/mus.880060807
37. Goodwin, J. N., Shoulders, C.W. (2013). The future of meat: A qualitative analysis of cultured meat media coverage. Meat Science, 95(3), 445-450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2013.05.027
38. Grinnell, F. (2000). Fibroblast–collagen-matrix contraction: growth-factor signalling and mechanical loading. Trends in Cell Biology, 10(9), 362-365. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0962-8924(00)01802-X
39. Guilak, F., Cohen, D.M., Estes, B.T., Gimble, J.M., Liedtke, W., Chen, C.S. (2009). Control of stem cell fate by physical interactions with the extracellular matrix. Cell Stem Cell, 5(1), 17-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stem.2009.06.016
40. Guilbert, L., Iscove, N. (1976). Partial replacement of serum by selenite, transferrin, albumin and lecithin in haemopoitec cell cultures. Nature, 263(5578), 594-595. https://doi.org/10.1038/263594a0
41. Ham, R.G. (1965). Clonal growth of mammalian cells in a chemically defined, synthetic medium. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 53(2), 288. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.53.2.288
42. Hoek, A.C., Luning, P.A., Stafleu, A., de Graaf, C. (2004). Food-related lifestyle and health attitudes of Dutch vegetarians, non-vegetarian consumers of meat substitutes, and meat consumers. Appetite, 42(3), 265-272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2003.12.003
43. Ismail, B.P., Senaratne-Lenagala, L., Stube, A., Brackenridge, A. (2020). Protein demand: Review of plant and animal proteins used in alternative protein product development and production. Animal Frontiers, 10(4), 53-63. https://doi.org/10.1093/af/vfaa040
44. Jensen, E.C. (2013). Overview of live‐cell imaging: requirements and methods used. The Anatomical Record: Advances in Integrative Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology, 296(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.22554
45. Joshi, V., Kumar, S. (2015). Meat Analogues: Plant based alternatives to meat products-A review. International Journal of Food and Fermentation Technology, 5(2), 107-119. https://doi.org/10.5958/2277-9396.2016.00001.5
46. Handral, H.K., Tay, S.H., Chan, W.W., Choudhury, D. (2020). 3D Printing of cultured meat products. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 62(1), 272-281.
47. Kadim, I.T., Mahgoub, O., Baqir, S., Faye, B., Purchas, R. (2015). Cultured meat from muscle stem cells: A review of challenges and prospects. Journal of Integrative Agriculture, 14(2), 222-233. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(14)60881-9
48. Kanatous, S.B., Mammen, P.P. (2010). Regulation of myoglobin expression. Journal of Experimental Biology, 213(16), 2741-2747. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.041442
49. Keefe, A.C., Lawson, J.A., Flygare, S.D., Fox, Z.D., Colasanto, M.P., Mathew, S.J., Kardon, G. (2015). Muscle stem cells contribute to myofibres in sedentary adult mice. Nature Communications, 6(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms8087
50. Kuang, S., Kuroda, K., Le Grand, F., Rudnicki, M.A. (2007). Asymmetric self-renewal and commitment of satellite stem cells in muscle. Cell, 129(5), 999-1010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2007.03.044
51. Kumar, P., Chatli, M., Mehta, N., Singh, P., Malav, O., Verma, A.K. (2017). Meat analogues: Health promising sustainable meat substitutes. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 57(5), 923-932. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2014.939739
52. Langelaan, M.L., Boonen, K.J., Polak, R.B., Baaijens, F.P., Post, M.J., van der Schaft, D.W. (2010). Meet the new meat: tissue engineered skeletal muscle. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 21(2), 59-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2009.11.001
53. Listrat, A., Lebret, B., Louveau, I., Astruc, T., Bonnet, M., Lefaucheur, L., Bugeon, J. (2016). How muscle structure and composition influence meat and flesh quality. The Scientific World Journal,2016, 3182746. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/3182746
54. Machida, S., Spangenburg, E., Booth, F. (2004). Primary rat muscle progenitor cells have decreased proliferation and myotube formation during passages. Cell Proliferation, 37(4), 267-277. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2184.2004.00311.x
55. Mattick, C., Allenby, B. (2013). The future of meat. Issues in Science and Technology, 30(1), 64-70.
56. Mattick, C.S. (2018). Cellular agriculture: The coming revolution in food production. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 74(1), 32-35. https://doi.org/10.1080/00963402.2017.1413059
57. Mau, M., Oksbjerg, N., Rehfeldt, C. (2008). Establishment and conditions for growth and differentiation of a myoblast cell line derived from the semimembranosus muscle of newborn piglets. In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology-Animal, 44(1-2), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11626-007-9069-6
58. Mc Clements, D.J. (2020). Future foods: How modern science is transforming the way we eat. Food & Function 11(3) 1933-1945. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9FO02076D
59. Mc Leod, A. (2011). World livestock 2011-livestock in food security. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). http://www.fao.org/3/i2373e/i2373e.pdf
60. Nienow, A.W. (2006). Reactor engineering in large scale animal cell culture. Cytotechnology, 50(1-3), 9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10616-006-9005-8
61. O’Mara, P., Farrell, A., Bones, J., Twomey, K. (2018). Staying alive! Sensors used for monitoring cell health in bioreactors. Talanta, 176, 130-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2017.07.088
62. Ong, S., Choudhury, D., Naing, M.W. (2020). Cell-based meat: current ambiguities with nomenclature. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 102, 223-231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.02.010
63. Pereira, P.M.d.C.C., Vicente, A.F.d.R.B. (2013). Meat nutritional composition and nutritive role in the human diet. Meat Science, 93(3), 586-592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2012.09.018 Post, M.J. (2012). Cultured meat from stem cells: Challenges and prospects. Meat Science, 92(3), 297-301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2012.04.008
64. Post, M.J., Levenberg, S., Kaplan, D.L., Genovese, N., Fu, J., Bryant, C.J., Moutsatsou, P. (2020). Scientific, sustainability and regulatory challenges of cultured meat. Nature Food, 1(7), 403-415. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-020-0112-z
65. Potyrailo, R.A., Surman, C., Monk, D., Morris, W.G., Wortley, T., Vincent, M., Gach, G. (2011). RFID sensors as the common sensing platform for single-use biopharmaceutical manufacturing. Measurement Science and Technology, 22(8), 082001. https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-0233/22/8/082001
66. Purslow, P.P. (2020). The structure and role of intramuscular connective tissue in muscle function. Frontiers in Physiology, 11, 495. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2020.00495
67. Redshaw, Z., McOrist, S., Loughna, P. (2010). Muscle origin of porcine satellite cells affects in vitro differentiation potential. Cell Biochemistry and Function, 28(5), 403-411. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbf.1670
68. Richler, C., Yaffe, D. (1970). The in vitro cultivation and differentiation capacities of myogenic cell lines. Developmental Biology, 23(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-1606(70)80004-5
69. Rischer, H., Szilvay, G.R., Oksman-Caldentey, K.-M. (2020). Cellular agriculture—industrial biotechnology for food and materials. Current opinion in biotechnology, 61, 128-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2019.12.003
70. Schabel, H.G. (2010). Forest insects as food: A global review. Forest insects as food: Humans Bite Back, Food & Agriculture Org. ISBN: 978-92-5-106488-7.
71. Sexton, A.E., Garnett, T., Lorimer, J. (2019). Framing the future of food: The contested promises of alternative proteins. Environment and Planning E: Nature and Space, 2(1), 47-72. https://doi.org/10.1177/2514848619827009
72. Sha, L., Xiong, Y.L. (2020). Plant protein-based alternatives of reconstructed meat: Science, technology, and challenges. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 102, 51-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.05.022
73. Shahini, A., Vydiam, K., Choudhury, D., Rajabian, N., Nguyen, T., Lei, P., Andreadis, S.T. (2018). Efficient and high yield isolation of myoblasts from skeletal muscle. Stem Cell Research, 30, 122-129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scr.2018.05.017
74. Shen, N., Riedl, J.A., Berrio, D.A.C., Davis, Z., Monaghan, M.G., Layland, S.L., Schenke-Layland, K. (2018). A flow bioreactor system compatible with real-time two-photon fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy. Biomedical Materials, 13(2), 024101. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-605X/aa9b3c
75. Specht, L., Scientist, S. (2020). An analysis of culture medium costs and production volumes for cultivated meat. The Good Food Institute: Washington, DC, USA.
76. Steinfeld, H., Gerber, P., Wassenaar, T. ., Castel, V., Rosales, M., Rosales, M., de Haan, C. (2006). Livestock's long shadow: environmental issues and options: Food & Agriculture Org. ISBN: 978-92-5-106488-7
77. Sürek, E., Pınar, U. (2020). Geleceğin alternatif protein kaynağı: Yapay et. Akademik Gıda, 18(2), 209-216. https://doi.org/10.24323/akademik-gida.758840
78. Tuomisto, H.L., Teixeira de Mattos, M.J. (2011). Environmental impacts of cultured meat production. Environmental Science & Technology, 45(14), 6117-6123. https://doi.org/10.1021/es200130u
79. Urbani, L., Piccoli, M., Franzin, C., Pozzobon, M., De Coppi, P. (2012). Hypoxia increases mouse satellite cell clone proliferation maintaining both in vitro and in vivo heterogeneity and myogenic potential. PloS ONE, 7(11), e49860. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0049860
80. Van Boeckel, T.P., Pires, J., Silvester, R., Zhao, C., Song, J., Criscuolo, N.G., Laxminarayan, R. (2019). Global trends in antimicrobial resistance in animals in low-and middle-income countries. Science, 365(6459). https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaw1944
81. Van Eenennaam, A.L. (2017). Genetic modification of food animals. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 44, 27-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2016.10.007
82. Vandenburgh, H., Shansky, J., Del Tatto, M., Chromiak, J. (1999). Organogenesis of skeletal muscle in tissue culture. In Tissue Engineering Methods and Protocols (pp. 217-225): Springer. ISBN: 978-1-59259-602-7 https://doi.org/10.1385/0-89603-516-6:217
83. Vasileska, A., Rechkoska, G. (2012). Global and regional food consumption patterns and trends. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 44, 363-369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.05.040
84. Verbeke, W., Pérez-Cueto, F.J., de Barcellos, M.D., Krystallis, A., Grunert, K.G. (2010). European citizen and consumer attitudes and preferences regarding beef and pork. Meat Science, 84(2), 284-292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2009.05.001
85. Verbeke, W., Van Wezemael, L., de Barcellos, M.D., Kügler, J.O., Hocquette, J.-F., Ueland, Ø., Grunert, K.G. (2010). European beef consumers’ interest in a beef eating-quality guarantee: insights from a qualitative study in four EU countries. Appetite, 54(2), 289-296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2009.11.013
86. Verhagen, J.H., Fouchier, R.A., Lewis, N. (2021). Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses at the Wild–Domestic Bird Interface in Europe: Future Directions for Research and Surveillance. Viruses, 13(2), 212. https://doi.org/10.3390/v13020212
87. Verkerk, M., Tramper, J., Van Trijp, J., Martens, D. (2007). Insect cells for human food. Biotechnology Advances, 25(2), 198-202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2006.11.004
88. Verzijden, K., Lawyers, A. (2012). Update on cloning in relation to foot production. EFSA Journal 10(7), 2794.
89. Wang, Y.X., Dumont, N.A., Rudnicki, M.A. (2014). Muscle stem cells at a glance. Journal of Cell Science, 127(21), 4543-4548. https://doi.org/10.1242/jcs.151209
90. Wilschut, K.J., Haagsman, H.P., Roelen, B.A. (2010). Extracellular matrix components direct porcine muscle stem cell behavior. Experimental Cell Research, 316(3), 341-352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yexcr.2009.10.014
91. Yin, H., Price, F., Rudnicki, M.A. (2013). Satellite cells and the muscle stem cell niche. Physiological Reviews, 93(1), 23-67.