Parental Expectancy Scale: Validity and Reliability Study

Abstract

The aim of this study was to develop a valid and reliable measurement tool that can determine the expectations of parents. The parental expectancy scale was theoretically designed based on expectancy theory. The study group in which the scale was tested was formed randomly. During the development phase of the scale, data were collected from 475 parents for exploratory factor analyses, 350 parents for confirmatory factor analyses, and 75 parents for other stages such as test-retest and pilot study. In total, 46.7% of the study group consisting of 900 participants were male and 53.3% were female. In addition, 35.5% of the study group had low income level, 46.7% had medium income level and 17.8% had high income level. The construct validity of the parental expectancy scale was first tested with EFA and then with CFA. In the analyses, it was seen that the scale had 21 items and the dimensions of the scale were determined according to Vroom's expectancy theory. Therefore, the dimensions of the scale were named as ‘value, instrumentality and expectancy’. The scale, whose reliability was tested by calculating McDonald's Omega (ω) and Cronbach's Alpha (α) coefficients, has a reliable structure in all sub-dimensions and in total. The analyses conducted in the study revealed that the developed scale has high validity and reliability and can measure the targeted attribute in a stable manner.

Keywords

• parental expectancy
• expectancy theory
• expectancy
• value
• instrumentality

Ebeveyn Beklentisi Ölçeği: Geçerlik ve Güvenirlik Çalışması

Abstract

Bu çalışmada ebeveynlerin beklentilerini belirleyebilecek geçerli ve güvenilir bir ölçme aracının geliştirilmesini amaçlanmıştır. Ebeveyn beklenti ölçeği teorik olarak beklenti kuramına dayalı bir biçimde tasarlanmıştır. Ölçeğin test edildiği çalışma grubu rassal bir biçimde oluşturulmuştur. Ölçeğin geliştirilme aşamasında açımlayıcı faktör analizleri için 475 ebeveynden, doğrulayıcı faktör analiz için 350 ebeveynden, test tekrar test ve pilot çalışma gibi diğer aşamalarda da 75 ebeveynden veri toplanmıştır. Toplamda 900 kişiden oluşan çalışma grubunun %46,7’ si erkek, %53,3’ ü kadındır. Ayrıca çalışma grubunun %35,5’ i düşük gelir düzeyine, %46,7’si orta gelir düzeyine, %17,8’ i yüksek gelir düzeyine sahiptir. Ebeveyn beklenti ölçeğinin yapı geçerliği ilk olarak AFA daha sonra ise DFA ile sınanmıştır. Yapılan analizlerde ölçeğin 21 maddeye sahip olduğu görülen ölçeğin boyutları Vroom’un beklenti kuramına göre belirlenmiştir. Bundan dolayı ölçeğin boyutları “değer, araçsallık ve beklenti” biçiminde isimlendirilmiştir. McDonald's Omega (ω) ve Cronbach’s Alpha (α) katsayıları hesaplanarak güvenirliği test edilen ölçek, tüm alt boyutları ve toplamında güvenilir bir yapıya sahiptir. Çalışmada yapılan analizler geliştirilen ölçeğin hedeflenen niteliği kararlı bir biçimde ölçebilen, yüksek geçerlilik ve güvenirliğe sahip olduğunu ortaya koymuştur.

Keywords

• ebeveyn beklentisi
• beklenti teorisi
• beklenti
• değer
• araçsallık

References

1. Aceves, L., Bámaca‐Colbert, M. Y., & Robins, R. W. (2019). Longitudinal linkages among parents’ educational expectations, youth’s educational expectations, and competence in mexican-origin families. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49(1), 32-48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01161-5
2. Akgündüz, Y., Gök, Ö. A., & Alkan, C. (2019). The effects of rewards and proactive personality on turnover intentions and meaning of work in hotel businesses. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 20(2), 170-183. https://doi.org/10.1177/1467358419841097
3. Aljuaid, H. (2021). Students’ motivation to learn english as a foreign language in the context of saudi arabian learners. Arab World English Journal, 12(3), 242-256. https://doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol12no3.17
4. Amali, N. A. K., Seng, H. Z., Rahmat, N. H., Mustafa, N. C., & Ibrahim, I. W. (2023). An investigation of learners’ motivational drive to learn foreign language: a look at vroom’s expectancy theory. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 13(3). https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v13-i3/16493
5. Ang, R. P., & Huan, V. S. (2006). Academic expectations stress inventory: Development, factor analysis, reliability, and validity. Educational and psychological measurement, 66(3), 522-539.
6. Baker, D. D., Ravichandran, R., & Randall, D. M. (1989). Exploring contrasting formulations of expectancy theory. Decision Sciences, 20(1), 1-13.
7. Barba‐Sánchez, V. and Atienza-Sahuquillo, C. (2017). Entrepreneurial motivation and self-employment: evidence from expectancy theory. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 13(4), 1097-1115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-017-0441-z
8. Bayram, N. (2013). Yapısal Eşitlik Modellemesine Giriş AMOS Uygulamaları. Ezgi Kitabevi.

9. Benner, A. D., Fernandez, C. C., Hou, Y., & Gonzalez, C. S. (2021). Parent and teacher educational expectations and adolescents' academic performance: Mechanisms of influence. Journal of community psychology, 49(7), 2679-2703.
10. Bornstein, M. H., & Zlotnik, D. (2008). Parenting style and their effects. Encyclopaedia of Infant and Early Childhood Development.
11. Brouwer, S., Bakker, R., & Schellekens, J. (2015). Predictors for re-employment success in newly unemployed: a prospective cohort study. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 89, 32-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2015.04.001
12. Brown, C. (2023). Better than nothing: on defining the valence of a life. Economics and Philosophy, 40(2), 434-461. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0266267123000305
13. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2015). Sosyal Bilimler İçin Veri Analizi El Kitabı. Pegem Yayınları.
14. Chan, I. Y. S., Leung, M., & Liang, Q. (2018). The roles of motivation and coping behaviours in managing stress: qualitative interview study of hong kong expatriate construction professionals in mainland china. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(3), 561. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15030561
15. Chiang, C. F., Jang, S., Canter, D., & Prince, B. (2008). An expectancy theory model for hotel employee motivation: Examining the moderating role of communication satisfaction. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 9(4), 327-351.
16. Chissom, D. (2024). Post-pandemic trends in the hospitality industry. Journal of Modern Hospitality, 3(3), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.47941/jmh.1961
17. Chopra, K. (2019). Vroom’s expectancy theory to motivate academic library users in india using grounded theory approach. Global Knowledge, Memory and Communication, 68(4/5), 300-322. https://doi.org/10.1108/gkmc-09-2018-0079
18. Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1995). Constructing validity: Basic issues in objective scale development. Psychological Assessment, 7(3), 309-319. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.7.3.309
19. Costello, A. B., & Osborne, J. W. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 10(1), 1-9.
20. Dănilă, I., Balazsi, R., Tăut, D., Băban, A., & Foran, H. (2023). Development and validation of the Parental Expectations Scale (PES) in parents from Romania. European Journal of Psychological Assessment.
21. Davidescu, A. A. (2017). Jordanian health employees’ job satisfaction. A vroom theory investigation. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2017.07.03.18
22. Dingel, K. and Spiekermann, S. (2009). Third generation knowledge management systems: towards an augmented technology acceptance model. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1346872
23. Donovan, J. J. (2002). Work motivation. In N. Anderson, D. S. Ones, H. K. Sinangil, & C. Viswesvaran (Eds.), Handbook of industrial, work and organizational psychology, Vol. 2. Organizational psychology (pp. 53–76). Sage Publications, Inc.
24. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual review of psychology, 53(1), 109-132.
25. Eisen, A. R., Spasaro, S. A., Brien, L. K., Kearney, C. A., & Albano, A. M. (2004). Parental expectancies and childhood anxiety disorders: Psychometric properties of the Parental Expectancies Scale. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 18(2), 89-109.
26. Ergin, D.Y. ve Çayak, S. (2019). Veli Beklentileri Ölçeği’nin geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Balkan ve Yakın Doğu Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 5(2), 46-55.
27. Eronen, M. I. and Bringmann, L. F. (2021). The theory crisis in psychology: how to move forward. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(4), 779-788. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620970586
28. Fabrigar, L. R., Wegener, D. T., MacCallum, R. C., & Strahan, E. J. (1999). Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research. Psychological Methods, 4(3), 272-299.
29. Fagbohungbe, B. O. (2012). Students’ performance in core and service courses: a test of valence-instrumentality expectancy theory. Journal of Management and Sustainability, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.5539/jms.v2n2p236
30. Fan, X., & Chen, M. (2001). Parental involvement and students' academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 13(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009048817385
31. Fang, Y., van Grieken, A., Windhorst, D. A., Fierloos, I. N., Jonkman, H., Hosman, C. M., ... & Raat, H. (2023). Longitudinal associations between parent, child, family factors and dyssomnias in children from birth to 8 years: The CIKEO study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 323, 496-505.
32. Froiland, J. M., Peterson, A., & Davison, M. L. (2013). The long-term effects of early parent involvement and parent expectation in the USA. School Psychology International, 34(1), 33-50.
33. Fuligni, A. J. (1997). The academic achievement of adolescents from immigrant families: The role of family background, attitudes, and behavior. Child development, 68(2), 351-363.
34. Ghoddousi, P., Bahrami, N., Chileshe, N., & Hosseini, M. R. (2014). Mapping site-based construction workers’ motivation: expectancy theory approach. Construction Economics and Building, 14(1), 60-77. https://doi.org/10.5130/ajceb.v14i1.3712
35. Grossman, J. A., Kuhn-McKearin, M., & Strein, W. (2011, August). Parental expectations and academic achievement: Mediators and school effects. In Presentado en Annual Convention of the American Psichological Assosiation. Washington, DC.
36. Guo, X., Lv, B., Zhou, H., Liu, C., Liu, J., Jiang, K., & Luo, L. (2018). Gender differences in how family income and parental education relate to reading achievement in China: The mediating role of parental expectation and parental involvement. Frontiers in psychology, 9, 783.
37. Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Pearson.
38. Haynes, S. N., Richard, D. C., & Kubany, E. S. (1995). Content validity in psychological assessment: A functional approach to concepts and methods. Psychological Assessment, 7(3), 238-247. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.7.3.238
39. Heneman, H. G. and Schwab, D. P. (1972). Evaluation of research on expectancy theory predictions of employee performance. Psychological Bulletin, 78(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0033093
40. Hinkin, T. R. (1998). A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires. Organizational Research Methods, 1(1), 104-121. https://doi.org/10.1177/109442819800100106
41. Jeynes, W. H. (2024). A meta-analysis: the relationship between the parental expectations component of parental involvement with students’ academic achievement. Urban Education, 59(1), 63-95. https://doi.org/10.1177/00420859211073892
42. Kirk, C. M., Lewis‐Moss, R. K., Nilsen, C., & Colvin, D. Q. (2011). The role of parent expectations on adolescent educational aspirations. Educational Studies, 37(1), 89-99.
43. Kiss, A. J. and Vukovic, R. K. (2020). Exploring educational engagement for parents with math anxiety. Psychology in the Schools, 58(2), 364-376. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22451
44. Latham, G. P. (2012). Work motivation: History, theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications.
45. Lawler, E. E. and Suttle, J. L. (1973). Expectancy theory and job behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 9(3), 482-503. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(73)90066-4
46. Lee, S. (2007). Vroom's expectancy theory and the public library customer motivation model. Library Review, 56(9), 788-796. https://doi.org/10.1108/00242530710831239
47. Leung, J. T., & Shek, D. T. (2011). Validation of the Chinese parental expectation on child’s future scale.
48. Lord, R. G., Hanges, P. J., & Godfrey, E. G. (2003). Integrating neural networks into decision-making and motivational theory: rethinking vie theory.. Canadian Psychology / Psychologie Canadienne, 44(1), 21-38. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0085815
49. Navarro, D. (2020). If mathematical psychology did not exist we might need to invent it: a comment on theory building in psychology.. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/ygbjp
50. Neuenschwander, M. P., Vida, M., Garrett, J. L., & Eccles, J. S. (2007). Parents' expectations and students' achievement in two western nations. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31(6), 594-602.
51. Osafo, E., Paros, A., & Yawson, R. M. (2021). Valence–instrumentality–expectancy model of motivation as an alternative model for examining ethical leadership behaviors. Sage Open, 11(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211021896
52. Parker, D. F., & Dyer, L. (1976). Expectancy theory as a within-person behavioral choice model: An empirical test of some conceptual and methodological refinements. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 17(1), 97-117.
53. Peleg-Popko, O., Klingman, A., & Nahhas, I. A. H. (2003). Cross-cultural and familial differences between Arab and Jewish adolescents in test anxiety. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27(5), 525-541.
54. Permzadian, V., & Shen, T. (2024). Assessing the predictive validity of expectancy theory for academic performance. BMC psychology, 12(1), 437.
55. Phillipson, S., & Phillipson, S. N. (2010). The involvement of Hong Kong parents in the education of their children: a validation of the Parents' Attributions and Perception Questionnaire. Educational Psychology, 30(6), 625-649.
56. Pinder, C. C. (2014). Work motivation in organizational behavior (2nd ed.). Psychology Press.
57. Pinquart, M., & Ebeling, M. (2020). Parental educational expectations and academic achievement in children and adolescents—a meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 32(2), 463-480.
58. Pomerantz, E. M., & Dong, W. (2006). Effects of mothers' perceptions of children's competence: the moderating role of mothers' theories of competence. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 950.
59. Pomerantz, E. M., Qin, L., Wang, Q., & Chen, H. (2011). Changes in early adolescents’ sense of responsibility to their parents in the United States and China: Implications for academic functioning. Child development, 82(4), 1136-1151.
60. Qu, Y., & Pomerantz, E. M. (2015). Divergent school trajectories in early adolescence in the United States and China: An examination of underlying mechanisms. Journal of youth and adolescence, 44, 2095-2109.
61. Rimkute, L., Hirvonen, R., Tolvanen, A., Aunola, K., & Nurmi, J. (2012). Parents' role in adolescents' educational expectations. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 56(6), 571-590. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2011.621133
62. Robinaugh, D. J., Haslbeck, J. M. B., Ryan, O., Fried, E. I., & Waldorp, L. (2021). Invisible hands and fine calipers: a call to use formal theory as a toolkit for theory construction. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(4), 725-743. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620974697
63. Rutherford, T. (2015). Emotional well-being and discrepancies between child and parent educational expectations and aspirations in middle and high school. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 20(1), 69-85.
64. Schumacker, R. E. ve Lomax, R. G. (2004). A beginner's guide to structural equation modeling. Psychology Press.
65. Shi, Z., Yang, B., Chen, B., Chen, X., & Qu, Y. (2023). What motivates chinese mothers’ involvement in adolescents’ learning? longitudinal investigation on the role of mothers’ expectations of adolescents’ family obligations and adolescents’ academic performance. Behavioral Sciences, 13(8), 632. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13080632
66. Solomon, G. B. and Rhea, D. (2008). Sources of expectancy information among college coaches: a qualitative test of expectancy theory. International Journal of Sports Science &Amp; Coaching, 3(2), 251-268. https://doi.org/10.1260/174795408785100725
67. Song, Y., Wu, J., Zhou, Z., Tian, Y., Li, W., & Xie, H. (2024). Parent-adolescent discrepancies in educational expectations, relationship quality, and study engagement: a multi-informant study using response surface analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1288644
68. Stahl, M. J., & Harrell, A. M. (1981). Modeling effort decisions with behavioral decision theory: Toward an individual differences model of expectancy theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 27(3), 303-325.
69. Tong, J., Zhang, X., Zhu, X., & Dang, J. (2022). How and when institutional trust helps deal with group crisis like covid-19 pandemic for chinese employees? a social perspective of motivation. Current Psychology, 43(16), 15008-15019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-04149-w
70. Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. John Willey & Sons.
71. Vroom, V., Porter, L., & Lawler, E. (2015). Expectancy theories. In Organizational Behavior 1 (pp. 94-113). Routledge.
72. Wang, L. F., & Heppner, P. P. (2002). Assessing the impact of parental expectations and psychological distress on Taiwanese college students. The Counseling Psychologist, 30(4), 582-608.
73. Wang, Y. and Tambi, F. B. (2024). Correlation between students perceived parental expectations and students academic engagement: the intermediary effect of academic self-efficacy. Journal of Pedagogical Research. https://doi.org/10.33902/jpr.202427683
74. Yamamoto, Y., & Holloway, S. D. (2010). Parental expectations and children's academic performance in sociocultural context. Educational Psychology Review, 22(3), 189 214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-010-9121-z
75. Zhang, F., & Yang, R. (2025). Parental expectations and adolescents’ happiness: the role of self-efficacy and connectedness. BMC psychology, 13(1), 24.
76. Zhao, L. (2024). Evaluation of the effect of parental participation on chinese adolescent behavioral development through the mediating effect of peers: a moderated mediation model. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, Volume 17, 1881-1901. https://doi.org/10.2147/prbm.s459742
77. Zhuang, J., Ng, J. C., & Wu, Q. (2024). I am better because of your expectation: Examining how left‐behind status moderates the mediation effect of perceived parental educational expectation on cognitive ability among Chinese rural students. Child: Care, Health and Development, 50(4), e13283.
78. Zucker, T. A., Montroy, J., Master, A., Assel, M., McCallum, C., & Yeomans-Maldonado, G. (2021). Expectancy-value theory & preschool parental involvement in informal STEM learning. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 76, 101320.