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ROMA HUKUKU PERSPEKTİFİNDEN XV. YÜZYIL POLONYA’SINDA SUÇ VE CEZA SİSTEMİ

Yıl 2024, , 435 - 469, 06.02.2024
https://doi.org/10.34246/ahbvuhfd.1336689

Öz

Roma Hukuku, Polonya’da Geç Orta Çağ döneminin suç ve ceza sistemi üzerinde önemli ölçüde etkili olmuştur. Dolayısıyla suçlar tıpkı Roma Hukuku’nda olduğu gibi iki kategoride ele alınmış; hırsızlık, dolandırıcılık ve cinayet ağır suçlar olarak kabul edilirken; küçük hırsızlıklar, ufak yaralamalar veya hakaretler daha hafif suçlar şeklinde değerlendirilmiştir. Suçlarla mücadele kapsamında ise suç işleyen kişileri yargılamak ve suçlulara uygun cezaları vermekle mahkemeler, genellikle de kraliyet mahkemeleri sorumlu kılınmıştır. Verilen cezaların insanlık dışı veya aşırı olmaması ilkesinin geçerli olduğu Polonya’da uygulanan para, hapis, sürgün ya da çeşitli fiziksel cezaların yanı sıra suçluların toplum hizmeti yapmaları veya malvarlıklarına el konulması da yaygın ceza şekilleri arasında yer almaktadır. Bununla birlikte, suçluların hakları da korunmuştur. Suçlulara masumiyet karinesine dayalı olarak savunma hakkı verilmiş ve mahkemelerde adil yargılama yapılması şart koşulmuştur. Roma Hukuku’nun etkisiyle gelişmiş olan Geç Orta Çağ Polonya suç ve ceza sistemi, adaletin sağlanması amacıyla düzenlenmiş olsa da, dönemin hem sosyal hem de siyasî koşullarının, ceza sistemi ve uygulamaları üzerinde etkili olduğunu belirtmek gerekmektedir. Ağırlıklı olarak yabancı kaynaklar kullanılarak hazırlanan bu çalışmamızda, Roma Hukuku açısından XV. yüzyıl Polonya Krallığı’nın suç ve ceza sistemi ele alınmıştır.

Kaynakça

  • Amielańczyk K, “Purposes and Functions of Public Punishment in Roman Law in the Perspective of Justinian’s Codification”,Studia Prawiczne Kul 4 (80), 2019, s. 21-37.
  • Araz N D, “Roma Hukukunda Ceza Koşulu (Stipulatio Poenae)”, Ankara Üniversitesi SBE, Özel Hukuk Anabilim Dalı, Doktora Tezi, 2018.
  • Armstrong J A, Nations Before Nationalism, The University of North Carolina Press, 1982.
  • Aybay A; Aybay R, Hukuka Giriş, Genişletmiş 8. Baskı, İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları 394, 2012.
  • Bąkowski K, Sądownictwo Karne w Krakowie w XIV wieku [Criminal Justice in Kraków in the Fourteenth Century], Drukarnia Czas, 1901.
  • Bellamy J G, The Criminal Trial in Later Medieval England: Felony Before the Courts from Edward I to the Sixteenth Century, University of Toronto Press, 1998.
  • Benes V, The Vanguard of the ‘Drang nach Osten’, Czechoslovak National Council of America, 1943.
  • Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, A Cultural History Piotr Górecki; Nancy van Deusen (Ed.) Tauris Academics Studies, 2009.
  • Chołoniewski A, The Spirit of Polish History, The Polish Book Imprting Co. Inc., 1918.
  • Mc Clintock A, “Callistratus”, Encyclopedia of Ancient History, 2019, s. 1-2.
  • Çelebican K Ö, Roma Hukuku, Yeni Medenî Kanuna Göre Uyarlanmış 13. Basım, Turhan Kitabevi, 2008.
  • Çelebican K Ö, Roma Hukuku, 18. Baskı, Turhan Kitabevi, 2020.
  • Dabrowski P M, Poland, The First Thousand Years, Northern Illinois University Press, De Kalb, 2014.
  • Davies N, God’s Playground, A History of Poland, The Origins to 1795 Vol. 1, Columbia University Press, 2005.
  • Encyclopedia of Society and Culture in the Medieval World Pam J. Crabtree (Ed.), An Imprint of Infobase Publishing, 2008.
  • Encyclopaedia Americana, A Popular Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature, History, Politics and Biography, Vol. 6, Lea & Blachard 1847.
  • Erdoğmuş B/ Tahiroğlu B, Roma Hukuku Pratik Çalışmaları-Meseleleri, Ekin Yayınevi, 2014.
  • The Foreign Quarterly Review, Vol. XXVII, Black; Armstrong, 1841.
  • Geary J, Before France and Germany, Oxford University Press, 1988.
  • Gözler K, Hukuka Giriş, 10. Baskı, Ekin Yayınları, 2013.
  • Hallihan C P, “The Latin Vulgate”, Quarterly Review 579, 2007, s. 8-15.
  • Harman Ö F, “Kitab-ı Mukaddes”, T. D. V. İslâm Ansiklopedisi 26, 2002, s. 75-76.
  • Kayak S, “Roma Hukukunda Cezaî Şart”, İÜHFM, C. LXIV, S. 1, 2006, s. 237-258.
  • Knoll P W, ‘A Pearl of Powerful Learning’ in William J. Courtenay, Jürgen Miethke, Frank Rexroth and Jacques Berger (Ed.), TheUniversity of Cracow in Fifteenth-century, Educational and Society, Brill, 2016.
  • Knütel R, Stipulatio Poenae, Studien zur Römischen Vertragsstrafe, Böhlau, 1976, s. 27-65.
  • Koredczuk J, “Konrad z Opola i jego dzieło”, XVI/ 4 (1) Opolskie Studia Administracyjno-Prawne, Uniwersytet Opolski, 2018, s. 29-38.
  • Koschaker P; Ayiter K, Modern Özel Hukuka Giriş Olarak Roma Özel Hukukunun Ana Hatları, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Yayınları, 1993.
  • Krakowskie Studia z Historii Państwa i Prawa pod redakcją Wacława Uruszaka, Doroty Malce, Kazimierza Barana, Macieja Mikuły 4, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, 2011.
  • Küçük E, “XII. Yüzyıl Rönesansı ve ‘Yeniden Doğan’ Roma’yı Günümüze Bağlayan Son Halka: Pandekt Hukuku”, Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 2007, s. 111-122.
  • Lauren P G, “The Foundations of Justice and Human Rights in Early Texts and Thought”, Dinah Shelton (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of International Human Rights Law, Oxford University Press, 2013.
  • Lerski G J, Historical Dictionary of Poland (966-1945) Piotr Wróbel & Richard J. Kozicki (Ed.), Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996.
  • Lück H, “Aspects of the Transfer of the Saxon-Magdeburg Law to Central and Eastern Europe”, Zeitschrift des Max-Planck-Instituts für Europäische Rechtsgeschichte, 2014, s. 79-84.
  • Meltzer I A, Social History of Disability in the Middle Ages, Cultural Consideration of Physical Impairment, Routledge, 2013.
  • Mikuła M, Municipal Magdeburg Law (Ius municipale Magdeburgense) in Late Medieval Poland, Brill, 2020.
  • Mirić F, “System Punishment in Roman Law”, Iumanum, Societas pro Iure Romano Article, January, 2017, s. 1-9. Morfill M A, The Story of the Nations, Poland, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1893.
  • Oğuz E E, 14. ve 15. Yüzyıllarda Polonya Krallığı (Siyasî, Ekonomik, Sosyal ve Kültürel Yönden), Bilecik Şeyh Edebali Üniversitesi Tarih Anabilim Dalı, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, 2022.
  • Pershina Y, “The System of Punishments in the Ancient Rome”, Modern European Researches, 2017, s 78-86.
  • Pogonowski I C, The First Democracy in Modern Europe, Hippocrene Books, Inc., 2010.
  • Prudnikov M N, The Roman Law: Textbook, Moscow Publishing House, Yurayt, 2010.
  • Rappoport A S, Of Poland from Ancient Times to the Insurrection of 1864; Together with a Brief Account of Its Political Life, Language and Literature, Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co. Ltd., 1915.
  • Riggsby A M, Roman Law and the Legal World of the Romans, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2010.
  • Šarkić S v The Influence of Byzantine Law in East Central Europe’ in Śary, P. Lectures on East Central European Legal History, Miskolc, Central European Academic Publishing, 2022.
  • Schleswiger R B, “Polish Law Throughout the Ages”, Cornell Law Review 57 (5) May Article 7, 1972, s. 850-854.
  • Sedlar J W, East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500, University of Washington Press, 1994.
  • Sjörgen W, Ueber die Römische Conventionalstrafe und die Strafklausen der fränkischen Urkunden, Carl Heymanns, 1896.
  • Tahiroğlu B, “Roma Hukukunda Suçların Genel Nitelikleri ve Modern Türk Hukukuna Etkileri, Türk- İtalyan Karşılaştırmalı Ceza Hukuku I, Türk ve Roma Hukukunun Genel Sorunları”, Prof. Dr. Yener Ünver (ed.), 2014, s 25-42.
  • Tarlow S/ Lowman E B, Harnessing the Power of the Criminal Corpse, Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.
  • Türkoğlu H G, Roma Hukukunda Suç ve Ceza, Seçkin Yayıncılık, 2014.
  • Ullmann W, The Sources of History: Studies in the Uses of Historical Evidence, Law and Politics in the Middle Ages, An Introduction to the Sources of Medieval Political Ideas G R. Elton (Ed.), Cambridge University Press, 1975.
  • Umur Z, Roma Hukuku Lügatı, Fakülteler Matbaası, 1983.
  • Viktorivna D N, “The Difference between Historical and Legal Terms Magdeburg and German Law”, Modern Approaches to the Introduction of Science into Practice 30-31 March X. Scientific and Practical Conference, San Francisco, 2020, s. 405-415.
  • Wojtucki D, “Publiczne Miejsca Straceń na Dolnym Śląsku od XV do XIX Wieku” [The Public Places of Executions in Lower Silesia from the Fifteenth to Nineteenth Century], Fundacja Zamek Chudów, 2009, s. 470-471.
  • Wójcik K, “The Exercise of Criminal Justice in Medieval Towns: A Comparison of English and Polish Jurisdiction”, A Thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Law The University of Exeter, 2019.
  • Zamoyski A, The Polish Way, A Thousand-Year History of the Poles and Their Culture, John Murray Publishers Ltd., 1987.
  • <https://www.encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/ortyle;3952020.html>, Erişim Tarihi 14 Şubat 2023.

CRIME AND PUNISHMENT SYSTEM OF XV-TH CENTURY POLAND FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF ROMAN LAW

Yıl 2024, , 435 - 469, 06.02.2024
https://doi.org/10.34246/ahbvuhfd.1336689

Öz

Roman Law had a significant influence on the criminal justice system of Late Medieval Poland. Therefore, crimes were handled in two categories, just like in Roman Law; while theft, fraud, and murder were considered as serious crimes; petty thefts, minor injuries or insults were considered as lesser offences. In the fight against crime, courts, often royal courts, were made responsible for judging offenders and handing out appropriate punishments. In addition to fines, imprisonment, exile or various physical punishments applied in Poland, where the principle of not being inhuman or excessive in punishment was valid, the criminals’ performing community service or confiscating their assets were among the common forms of punishment. However, the rights of criminals were also protected. Criminals were granted the right of defence based on the presumption of innocence and fair trials in courts were stipulated. Although the Late Medieval Polish crime and punishment system, which developed under the influence of Roman Law, was designed to ensure justice, it should be noted that both the social and political conditions of the period were influential on the punishment system and its practices. In this study, which was mainly prepared by using foreign sources, the crime and punishment system of the XVth-century Polish Kingdom is discussed in terms of Roman Law.

Kaynakça

  • Amielańczyk K, “Purposes and Functions of Public Punishment in Roman Law in the Perspective of Justinian’s Codification”,Studia Prawiczne Kul 4 (80), 2019, s. 21-37.
  • Araz N D, “Roma Hukukunda Ceza Koşulu (Stipulatio Poenae)”, Ankara Üniversitesi SBE, Özel Hukuk Anabilim Dalı, Doktora Tezi, 2018.
  • Armstrong J A, Nations Before Nationalism, The University of North Carolina Press, 1982.
  • Aybay A; Aybay R, Hukuka Giriş, Genişletmiş 8. Baskı, İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları 394, 2012.
  • Bąkowski K, Sądownictwo Karne w Krakowie w XIV wieku [Criminal Justice in Kraków in the Fourteenth Century], Drukarnia Czas, 1901.
  • Bellamy J G, The Criminal Trial in Later Medieval England: Felony Before the Courts from Edward I to the Sixteenth Century, University of Toronto Press, 1998.
  • Benes V, The Vanguard of the ‘Drang nach Osten’, Czechoslovak National Council of America, 1943.
  • Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, A Cultural History Piotr Górecki; Nancy van Deusen (Ed.) Tauris Academics Studies, 2009.
  • Chołoniewski A, The Spirit of Polish History, The Polish Book Imprting Co. Inc., 1918.
  • Mc Clintock A, “Callistratus”, Encyclopedia of Ancient History, 2019, s. 1-2.
  • Çelebican K Ö, Roma Hukuku, Yeni Medenî Kanuna Göre Uyarlanmış 13. Basım, Turhan Kitabevi, 2008.
  • Çelebican K Ö, Roma Hukuku, 18. Baskı, Turhan Kitabevi, 2020.
  • Dabrowski P M, Poland, The First Thousand Years, Northern Illinois University Press, De Kalb, 2014.
  • Davies N, God’s Playground, A History of Poland, The Origins to 1795 Vol. 1, Columbia University Press, 2005.
  • Encyclopedia of Society and Culture in the Medieval World Pam J. Crabtree (Ed.), An Imprint of Infobase Publishing, 2008.
  • Encyclopaedia Americana, A Popular Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature, History, Politics and Biography, Vol. 6, Lea & Blachard 1847.
  • Erdoğmuş B/ Tahiroğlu B, Roma Hukuku Pratik Çalışmaları-Meseleleri, Ekin Yayınevi, 2014.
  • The Foreign Quarterly Review, Vol. XXVII, Black; Armstrong, 1841.
  • Geary J, Before France and Germany, Oxford University Press, 1988.
  • Gözler K, Hukuka Giriş, 10. Baskı, Ekin Yayınları, 2013.
  • Hallihan C P, “The Latin Vulgate”, Quarterly Review 579, 2007, s. 8-15.
  • Harman Ö F, “Kitab-ı Mukaddes”, T. D. V. İslâm Ansiklopedisi 26, 2002, s. 75-76.
  • Kayak S, “Roma Hukukunda Cezaî Şart”, İÜHFM, C. LXIV, S. 1, 2006, s. 237-258.
  • Knoll P W, ‘A Pearl of Powerful Learning’ in William J. Courtenay, Jürgen Miethke, Frank Rexroth and Jacques Berger (Ed.), TheUniversity of Cracow in Fifteenth-century, Educational and Society, Brill, 2016.
  • Knütel R, Stipulatio Poenae, Studien zur Römischen Vertragsstrafe, Böhlau, 1976, s. 27-65.
  • Koredczuk J, “Konrad z Opola i jego dzieło”, XVI/ 4 (1) Opolskie Studia Administracyjno-Prawne, Uniwersytet Opolski, 2018, s. 29-38.
  • Koschaker P; Ayiter K, Modern Özel Hukuka Giriş Olarak Roma Özel Hukukunun Ana Hatları, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Yayınları, 1993.
  • Krakowskie Studia z Historii Państwa i Prawa pod redakcją Wacława Uruszaka, Doroty Malce, Kazimierza Barana, Macieja Mikuły 4, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, 2011.
  • Küçük E, “XII. Yüzyıl Rönesansı ve ‘Yeniden Doğan’ Roma’yı Günümüze Bağlayan Son Halka: Pandekt Hukuku”, Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 2007, s. 111-122.
  • Lauren P G, “The Foundations of Justice and Human Rights in Early Texts and Thought”, Dinah Shelton (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of International Human Rights Law, Oxford University Press, 2013.
  • Lerski G J, Historical Dictionary of Poland (966-1945) Piotr Wróbel & Richard J. Kozicki (Ed.), Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996.
  • Lück H, “Aspects of the Transfer of the Saxon-Magdeburg Law to Central and Eastern Europe”, Zeitschrift des Max-Planck-Instituts für Europäische Rechtsgeschichte, 2014, s. 79-84.
  • Meltzer I A, Social History of Disability in the Middle Ages, Cultural Consideration of Physical Impairment, Routledge, 2013.
  • Mikuła M, Municipal Magdeburg Law (Ius municipale Magdeburgense) in Late Medieval Poland, Brill, 2020.
  • Mirić F, “System Punishment in Roman Law”, Iumanum, Societas pro Iure Romano Article, January, 2017, s. 1-9. Morfill M A, The Story of the Nations, Poland, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1893.
  • Oğuz E E, 14. ve 15. Yüzyıllarda Polonya Krallığı (Siyasî, Ekonomik, Sosyal ve Kültürel Yönden), Bilecik Şeyh Edebali Üniversitesi Tarih Anabilim Dalı, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, 2022.
  • Pershina Y, “The System of Punishments in the Ancient Rome”, Modern European Researches, 2017, s 78-86.
  • Pogonowski I C, The First Democracy in Modern Europe, Hippocrene Books, Inc., 2010.
  • Prudnikov M N, The Roman Law: Textbook, Moscow Publishing House, Yurayt, 2010.
  • Rappoport A S, Of Poland from Ancient Times to the Insurrection of 1864; Together with a Brief Account of Its Political Life, Language and Literature, Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co. Ltd., 1915.
  • Riggsby A M, Roman Law and the Legal World of the Romans, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2010.
  • Šarkić S v The Influence of Byzantine Law in East Central Europe’ in Śary, P. Lectures on East Central European Legal History, Miskolc, Central European Academic Publishing, 2022.
  • Schleswiger R B, “Polish Law Throughout the Ages”, Cornell Law Review 57 (5) May Article 7, 1972, s. 850-854.
  • Sedlar J W, East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500, University of Washington Press, 1994.
  • Sjörgen W, Ueber die Römische Conventionalstrafe und die Strafklausen der fränkischen Urkunden, Carl Heymanns, 1896.
  • Tahiroğlu B, “Roma Hukukunda Suçların Genel Nitelikleri ve Modern Türk Hukukuna Etkileri, Türk- İtalyan Karşılaştırmalı Ceza Hukuku I, Türk ve Roma Hukukunun Genel Sorunları”, Prof. Dr. Yener Ünver (ed.), 2014, s 25-42.
  • Tarlow S/ Lowman E B, Harnessing the Power of the Criminal Corpse, Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.
  • Türkoğlu H G, Roma Hukukunda Suç ve Ceza, Seçkin Yayıncılık, 2014.
  • Ullmann W, The Sources of History: Studies in the Uses of Historical Evidence, Law and Politics in the Middle Ages, An Introduction to the Sources of Medieval Political Ideas G R. Elton (Ed.), Cambridge University Press, 1975.
  • Umur Z, Roma Hukuku Lügatı, Fakülteler Matbaası, 1983.
  • Viktorivna D N, “The Difference between Historical and Legal Terms Magdeburg and German Law”, Modern Approaches to the Introduction of Science into Practice 30-31 March X. Scientific and Practical Conference, San Francisco, 2020, s. 405-415.
  • Wojtucki D, “Publiczne Miejsca Straceń na Dolnym Śląsku od XV do XIX Wieku” [The Public Places of Executions in Lower Silesia from the Fifteenth to Nineteenth Century], Fundacja Zamek Chudów, 2009, s. 470-471.
  • Wójcik K, “The Exercise of Criminal Justice in Medieval Towns: A Comparison of English and Polish Jurisdiction”, A Thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Law The University of Exeter, 2019.
  • Zamoyski A, The Polish Way, A Thousand-Year History of the Poles and Their Culture, John Murray Publishers Ltd., 1987.
  • <https://www.encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo/ortyle;3952020.html>, Erişim Tarihi 14 Şubat 2023.
Toplam 55 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Ceza Hukuku, Hukuk ve Din
Bölüm KAMU HUKUKU
Yazarlar

Ebru Emine Oğuz 0000-0002-1653-3325

Yayımlanma Tarihi 6 Şubat 2024
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2024

Kaynak Göster

APA Oğuz, E. E. (2024). ROMA HUKUKU PERSPEKTİFİNDEN XV. YÜZYIL POLONYA’SINDA SUÇ VE CEZA SİSTEMİ. Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 28(1), 435-469. https://doi.org/10.34246/ahbvuhfd.1336689
AMA Oğuz EE. ROMA HUKUKU PERSPEKTİFİNDEN XV. YÜZYIL POLONYA’SINDA SUÇ VE CEZA SİSTEMİ. AHBVÜ-HFD. Şubat 2024;28(1):435-469. doi:10.34246/ahbvuhfd.1336689
Chicago Oğuz, Ebru Emine. “ROMA HUKUKU PERSPEKTİFİNDEN XV. YÜZYIL POLONYA’SINDA SUÇ VE CEZA SİSTEMİ”. Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi 28, sy. 1 (Şubat 2024): 435-69. https://doi.org/10.34246/ahbvuhfd.1336689.
EndNote Oğuz EE (01 Şubat 2024) ROMA HUKUKU PERSPEKTİFİNDEN XV. YÜZYIL POLONYA’SINDA SUÇ VE CEZA SİSTEMİ. Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi 28 1 435–469.
IEEE E. E. Oğuz, “ROMA HUKUKU PERSPEKTİFİNDEN XV. YÜZYIL POLONYA’SINDA SUÇ VE CEZA SİSTEMİ”, AHBVÜ-HFD, c. 28, sy. 1, ss. 435–469, 2024, doi: 10.34246/ahbvuhfd.1336689.
ISNAD Oğuz, Ebru Emine. “ROMA HUKUKU PERSPEKTİFİNDEN XV. YÜZYIL POLONYA’SINDA SUÇ VE CEZA SİSTEMİ”. Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi 28/1 (Şubat 2024), 435-469. https://doi.org/10.34246/ahbvuhfd.1336689.
JAMA Oğuz EE. ROMA HUKUKU PERSPEKTİFİNDEN XV. YÜZYIL POLONYA’SINDA SUÇ VE CEZA SİSTEMİ. AHBVÜ-HFD. 2024;28:435–469.
MLA Oğuz, Ebru Emine. “ROMA HUKUKU PERSPEKTİFİNDEN XV. YÜZYIL POLONYA’SINDA SUÇ VE CEZA SİSTEMİ”. Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, c. 28, sy. 1, 2024, ss. 435-69, doi:10.34246/ahbvuhfd.1336689.
Vancouver Oğuz EE. ROMA HUKUKU PERSPEKTİFİNDEN XV. YÜZYIL POLONYA’SINDA SUÇ VE CEZA SİSTEMİ. AHBVÜ-HFD. 2024;28(1):435-69.