Kadınların Geleneksel Rollerinde Ücret Eşitsizliği: Uygulamalar ve İncelemeler

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 27 Sayı: 3, 965 - 990, 18.12.2025

Asiye Gölpek Karababa

https://doi.org/10.26745/ahbvuibfd.1641500

Öz

Kadınların geleneksel rolleri arasında yer alan ev işleri, hane halkının hem doğrudan bakımını hem de yemek pişirme ve ısınma gibi dolaylı işlerini kapsayan ücretsiz işler olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Bu işler, teorik olarak kabul edilse bile belgelenemedikleri için genellikle ücretlendirilememekte, kadınların bazı uygulamalardan ve politikalardan yararlanamaması eşitsizlikler yaratabilmektedir. Bu eşitsizlikleri ise, ev işleri ve evde bakım işinin tanınması, olumsuzlukların azaltılması veya kaldırılması amacıyla oluşturulacak politikalara bağlı olmaktadır. Böyle bir politika, hemen her ülkede mevcut uygulamalar olan kamu hizmetleri ve ev işlerinde ortak sorumluluğun dağıtılması gibi başlıklar altında toplanabilir.
Bu çalışmanın amacı, kadınların ev ve evde bakım işlerini uygulamalar ve veriler ile analiz ederek ücret eşitsizliği hakkında genel bir çerçeve sunmaktır. Buna göre, UN, ILO, World Bank, OECD ve IFC verileri ile bazı ülkelerde yapılan uygulamalar birlikte değerlendirilmiştir. Çalışmanın sonucunda, kadınların hemen her toplumda aynı güce ve aynı niteliğe sahip grup olmadığı ve homojen olmayan böyle bir yapının da ücret eşitsizliklerinin temel nedenlerinden biri olduğu ifade edilebilir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Kadının geleneksel rolleri , ücretsiz ev ve evde bakım işleri , toplumsal eşitsizlik.

An Analysis of Inequality in Women's Traditional Roles: Apps and Reviews

Öz

Housework, which is among the traditional roles of women, is defined as non-market, unpaid work that includes both direct care of the household and indirect work such as cooking and fetching water and fuel. Even if these jobs are accepted theoretically, they usually cannot be paid because they cannot be documented. Restricting women's benefit from some programs and policies may create inequalities. This inequality is based on the creation of a policy regarding the recognition of unpaid care work and the reduction and removal of negativities. Such a policy can be grouped under headings such as distribution of shared responsibility for public services and household chores, which are current practices in almost every country.
The aim of this study is to provide a general framework about inequality by analyzing women's house and care work with data. Accordingly, UN, ILO, World Bank, OECD and IFC data and data from studies conducted in some countries were evaluated together. As a result of the study, it can be stated that women are not a group with the same power and the same qualifications in almost every society, and such a non-homogeneous structure causes inequalities.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Traditional roles of women , unpaid housework and care work , social inequality.

Kaynakça

• Aragão, R. ve L. Linsi (2020). Many shades of wrong: What governments do when they manipulate statistics. Review of International Political Economy. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2020.1769704.
• Butkus, M., Matuzevieiute, K. ve Raupytė, K. (2020). Effects of remittances on poverty: Evidence in CEE Countries. Organizations and Markets in Emerging Economies, 11(1), 69–82. https://doi.org/10.15388/omee.2020.11.24
• Butt, A.P., Remme, J., Rost, L. ve Koissy-Kpein, A. (2018). Exploring the need for gender-equitable fiscal policies for a human economy: Evidence from Uganda and Zimbabwe. OXFAM Research Reports. https://oxfamilibrary.openrepository.com/bitstream/handle/10546/620417
• Buvinic, M., Furst-Nichols, R. ve Pryor, E. (2013). Women’s economic empowerment: a Roadmap. https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/Gender/A%20Roadmap%20for%20Promoting%20Womens%20Economic%20Empowerment_World%20Bank%20April%2022%202014.pdf
• Cassirer, N. ve Addati, L. (2007). Expanding women’s employment opportunities: Informal economy workers and the need for childcare. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---travail/documents/publication/wcms_145652.pdf
• Chalise, H. ve Brightman, J. (2006). Aging trends: Population aging in Nepal. Geriatrics and Gerntology International, 6: 99-204. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1447-0594.2006.00347.x
• Chopra, D. ve Zambelli, E. (2017). No time to rest: Women’s lived experiences of balancing paid work and unpaid care work. Part of the research project Balancing unpaid work and paid work, generating new knowledge about Women’s Economic. Empowerment. https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/handle/20.500.12413/13574
• Clark, S., Kabiru, C., Laszlo, S. ve Muthuri, S. (2017). Can subsidized early child care promote women’s employment? Evidence from a slum settlement in Africa. International Development Research Centre. https://conference.iza.org/conference_files/GLMLIC_Ethiopia2018_Conference/
• Devercelli, A. ve Neuman, M. (2013). What matters most for early childhood development: A framework paper. World Bank. http://wbgfiles.worldbank.org/documents/hdn/ed/saber/supporting_doc/Background/ECD/Framework_SABER-ECD.pdf
• Dominguez, I., Devesa, E., Encinas, B. ve Meneu, R.(2021). The minimum pension and its effect on the gender gap in retirement pensions in Spain. Journal of Gender Studies. 31(3), 323–337. doi: 10.3389/fsoc.2019.00084
• Doyle K, Levtov RG, Barker G, Bastian GG, Bingenheimer JB, Kazimbaya S, Nzabonimpa A, Pulerwitz J, Sayinzoga F, Sharma V. ve Shattuck D. (2018). Gender-transformative Bandebereho couples’ intervention to promote male engagement in reproductive and maternal health and violence prevention in Rwanda: Findings from a randomized controlled trial. PLoS One. April-13(4), e0192756. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0192756
• Dutta, S., Kooijam, A. ve Cecelski, E. (2017). Energy access and gender: Getting the Right Balance. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/463071494925985630/pdf/115066-BRI-P148200-PUBLIC-FINALSEARSFGenderweb.pdf
• Elson, D. (2017). Recognize, reduce and redistribute unpaid care work: How to close the gender gap. New Workers Forum, 26(2), 52-61. https://doi.org/10.1177/1095796017700135
• Ferrant, G. ve Thim, A. (2019). Measuring women’s economic empowerment: Time use data and gender inequality. OECD Development Policy Papers (February- 16). https://www.oecd.org/dev/development-gender/
• Ferrant, G., Pesando, L. ve Nowacka, K. (2014). Unpaid care work: The missing link in the analysis of gender gaps in labor outcomes. OECD Development Centre (December). https://www.oecd.org/dev/development-gender
• Folbre, N. (2006). Measuring care, gender empowerment and the care economy. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 7(2-July), 183-199. DOI:10.1080/14649880600768512
• Folbre, N. (2018). Developing care: Recent research on the care economy and economic development. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Developing-care-%3A-recent-research-on-the-care-and-Folbre/
• Fontana, M. ve Elson, D. (2014). Public policies on water provision and early childhood education and care (ECEC): Do they reduce and redistribute unpaid work. Gender & Development, 22(3), 459-474.https://policy-practice.oxfam.org/resources/public-policies-on-water-provision-and-early-childhood-education-and-care-ecec-333402/
• Francesconi, M. ve Heckma, J. (2016). Symposium on child development and parental investment: Introduction. The Economic Journal, 126(596), F1-F27. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12388
• Gaweł, A. ve Mroczek-Dąbrowska, K. (2022). Gender pay gap in explaining female entrepreneurship–industry perspective of selected European countries. International Journal of Manpower, 43(9), 42-59. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJM-12-2020-0554
• Gurara, D., Klyuev, J., Mwase, N. Presbitero, F.A., Cindy Xu, X. ve Bannister,G.J. (2017). Trends and challenges in ınfrastructure ınvestment in low-ıncome developing countries. International Monetary Fund, Washington D.C https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2017/11/07/Trends-and-Challenges-in-Infrastructure-Investment-in-Low-Income-Developing-Countries-45339
• Haider, H. (2017). Changing gender social norms, attitudes and behaviours. Institute of Development Studies. https://gsdrc.org/wp ontent/uploads/2017/05/K4D_HDQ89.pdf
• IFC (2017). Tackling childcare: The business case for employer-supported childcare. International Finance Corporation. https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/region__ext_content/ifc_external_corporate_site/east+asia+and+the+pacific/resources/
• Ilkkaracan, I., Kaya, K. ve Kim, K. (2015). The impact of public investment in social care services on employment, gender equality, and poverty: The Turkish case. Women’s Studies Center in Science, Engineering and Technology and the Levy Institute of Bard College. https://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/rpr_8_15.pdf
• ILO (2016). Women at work: Trends 2016. International Labor Office. https://www.ilo.org/gender/Informationresources/Publications/WCMS_457317/lang--en/index.htm
• ILO (2017). World social protection report 2017-19: Universal social protection to achieve the sustainable development goals. International Labour Office. https://www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/WCMS_604882/lang--en/index.htm
• ILO (2018a). “Executive Summary” in care work and care jobs for the future of decent work. International Labour Organization. http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/WCMS_633135/lang--en/index.htm (accessed on December 2018).
• ILO (2018b). Care work and care jobs for the future of decent work. https://www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/WCMS_633135/lang--en/index.htm
• Inglehart, R. ve Ponarin, E. (2017). Cultural change, slow and fast: The distinctive trajectory of norms governing gender equality and sexual orientation, pp. 1313–1340. https://gctpnews.org/cultural-change-slow-and-fast-the-distinctive-trajectory-of-norms-governing-gender-equality-and-sexual-orientation/
• ITUC (2016). Investing in the care economy: A gender analysis of employment stimulus in seven OECD countries. International Trade Union Confederation. https://www.ilo.org/gender/Informationresources/Publications/WCMS_457317/lang--en/index.htm
• Kerras, H., Bautista, S., Piñeros Perea, D.S. ve De-Miguel Gómez, M.D. (2022). Is the gender pay gap an outcome of other gender gap?. In: Primo, T.T., Gomes, A.S., Moreira, F., Collazos, C. (eds) Advanced Virtual Environments and Education. WAVE 2021. Communications in Computer and Information Science, 1425-Springer. Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07018-1_3
• Kidder, T., Bright, D., ve Green, C. (2014). Meaningful action: Effective approaches to women’s economic empowerment in agriculture
• Levtov, R. (2015). State of the world’s fathers: A men care advocacy publication, promundo, rutgers, save the children, sonke gender justice, and the men engage alliance. https://planinternational.org/uploads/2021/12/state_of_the_worlds_fathers_2019_full_2.pdf
• Mohun, R. (2016). Infrastructure: A game-changer for women’s economic empowerment. https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/explainer/2022/09/explainer-sustainable-development-goal-five?gclid=Cj0KCQjwqNqkBhDlARIsAFaxvwzq6lkIO_y_ei7Sx4YyrxuPulTpkndl0DF5CBFJTQnIeoYSk4BpDhwaAsvXEALw_wcB
• Moussié, R. (2022). Women informal workers mobilizing for child care. Women in Informal Employment Globalizing and Organizing (WIEGO). https://www.unwomen.org/en/hq-complex-page/covid-19-rebuilding-for-resilience/care-work?gclid=Cj0KCQjwqNqkBhDlARIsAFaxvwyXkOL8ZYu_LPRB2MCreklYCTusrMhL04nggMCfomcRKzHKrcvhMfkaAiSbEALw_wcB
• Nagy, B. (2008). Challenging the male norm of employment: Evidence from Sweden, Norway, and Hungary (pp. 105-128). Routledge.
• Njagi, J. (2017). Findings on early childhood development and education (ECDE) in Kenya from Tayari baseline evaluation. African Population and Health Research Centre (APHRC).https://www.africanchildrensfund.org/kenya/?gclid=Cj0KCQjwqNqkBhDlARIsAFaxvwwVsVBvuqnleSaJzgp0eHf03dRKBItspesySStGZZidThThRttXnZ0aAsWkEALw_wcB
• O’Neill, M., Chopra, D. ve Vargas, A. (2017). Unpaid care and women’s empowerment: Lessons from research and practice – Policy brief. International Development Research Centre, https://idl-bnc-idrc.dspacedirect.org/bitstream/handle/10625/56369/IDL-56369.pdf?sequence=2
• OECD (2018). Is the last mile the longest? Economic gains from gender equality in Nordic countries. OECD Publishing. https://www.oecd.org/els/is-the-last-mile-the-longest-economic-gains-from-gender-equality-in-nordic-countries-9789264300040-en.htm
• OECD (2019a). Gender institutions and development database (GID-DB). https://stats.oecd.org/. https://doi.org/10.1787/888933948435
• OECD (2019b). OECD time use. https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TIME_USE
• OECD (2021). Creditor reporting system. Aid projects targeting gender equality and women’s empowerment. https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=crs1.
• OECD (2022). Peru: Encuesta nacional de uso del timpe. https://doi.org/10.1787/888933948473
• OECD ve UNDP (2021). OECD-UNDP Impact Standards for Financing Sustainable Development, https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/development/oecd-undpimpact-standards-for-financing-sustainable-development_744f982e-en
• Ortiz, I., Cummins, M. ve Karunanethy, K. (2017). Fiscal space for social protection and the SDGS options to expand social investments in 187 countries. International Labour Office, UN Women and The United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---soc_sec/documents
• Perlman, D., Wodon, Q. ve Adamu, F. (2018). Why do adolescent girls drop out of school in Niger? A combined quantitative and qualitative analysis. Marchés et Organisations, 32(2), 179-94. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/4f87a336-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/4f87a336-en
• Pulerwitz, J. (2023). Measuring attitudes toward gender norms among young men in Brazil: Development and psychometric evaluation of the GEM Scale”, Men and Masculinities, 10(3), 22-38. https://hdr.undp.org/content/2023-gender-social-norms-index-gsni?gclid=Cj0KCQjwqNqkBhDlARIsAFaxvwzf7hVuCPj9sVdiqubZ8s-VdAYpn1dXw5xQ2GExWHqnEnyp_ZGQshQaAm6CEALw_wcB#/indicies/GSNI
• Razavi, S. (2007). The political and social economy of care in a development context: Conceptual issues, research questions and policy options. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/603418
• Roquete, F. (2017). Care and management demands of long-term care facilities for the elderly in Brazil: an integrative review (2004-2014)”, pp.286-299. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/4f87a336-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/4f87a336-en
• Schlosser, A. (2011). Public preschool and the labor supply of arab mothers: Evidence from a natural experiment. https://scholar.google.com.tr/scholar?q=Schlosser,+A.+(2011),+%E2%80%9CPublic+Preschool+and+the+Labor+Supply+of+Arab+Mothers:+Evidence+from+a+Natural+Experiment%E2%80%9D.&hl=tr&as_sdt=0&as_vis=1&oi=scholart
• Shand, T. (2018). The need for fully paid, non-transferable parental leave: Leaving inequality behind and giving our children the care they need. Men Care. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/c8eb9246-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/c8eb9246-en
• Stefanik, L. ve Hwang, T. (2017). Applying theory to practice: CARE’s journey piloting social norms measures for gender programming.
• Takenoshita, H. (2020). The gender wage gap in four Asian countries: Japan, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan. In: Matsuda, S. (eds) low fertility in advanced Asian economies. Springer Briefs in Population Studies. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-0710-6_3
• Türkoğlu Üstün, K. (2020). Kadının Ücretsiz Bakım Emeğinin Azaltılması Kapsamında Kurumsal Çocuk Bakım Hizmetlerine Erişim Kreş Hakkı. Çalışma Ve Toplum, 3(66), 1557-1590. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/ct/issue/71786/1155136?utm_source=chatgpt.com#article_cite
• UN (2013). Report of the special rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights (Magdalena Sepúlveda Carmona) to the UN General Assembly. https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/egms/docs/2013/EmpowermentPolicies/Report%20of%20the%20Special%20Rapporteur%20on%20extreme%20poverty%20and%20human%20rights.pdf
• UN (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for sustainable development. https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda
• UN (2016). Leaving no one behind: A call to action on gender equality and women’s economic empowerment
• UN (2017a). How to recognise, reduce and redistribute unpaid care and work. https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/ageing/documents/csw/2017/conceptnotecsw61.pdf
• UN (2017b). Leave no one behind: Acting for transformational change on women’s economic empowerment. https://www.unscn.org/uploads/web/news/UNSG-HLP-WEE-2nd-Report-.pdf
• UN Women (2015). Progress of the world’s women 2015: Transforming Economies, Realizing Rights. https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2022-09/Progress-on-the-sustainable-development-goals-the-gender-snapshot-2022-en_0.pdf
• UN Women (2018). Turning promises into action: Gender equality in the agenda 2030 for sustainable development. https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/in-focus/2022/08/in-focus-sustainable-development-goal-5?gclid=CjwKCAjwm4ukBhAuEiwA0zQxkxWsK_5buhsS-9UJqPAoI1fNl31JXaFFrGrsyLMGM3uynedmz2VOPhoCkiwQAvD_BwE
• UN Women (2022). UN Women Strategic Plan 2022-2025. https://www.unwomen.org/en/un-women-strategic-plan2022-2025.
• UNFPA (2005). Frequently asked questions about gender equality. https://www.unfpa.org/resources/frequently-asked-questions-about-gender-equality
• Ven, P., Zwijnenburg, J. ve De Queljoe, M. (2018). Including unpaid household activities: An estimate of its impact on macro-economic indicators in the G7 economies and the way forward. OECD Statistics Working Papers, No. 2018/4, OECD Publishing, Paris.https://one.oecd.org/document/SDD/DOC(2018)4/En/pdf
• WHO ve UNICEF (2017). Progress on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene: 2017 update and SDG baselines. World Health Organization and the United Nations Children’s Fund. https://www.wvi.org/our-work/cleanwater?gad=1
• World Bank (2010). Making infrastructure work for women and men: a review of World Bank infrastructure projects (1995-2009), World Bank. Washington D.C http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/Resources/244362-1265299949041/6766328-1270752196897/Gender_Infrastructure2.pdf.
• World Bank (2012). Gender equality and development. https://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/abs/10.1596/978-0-8213-8810-5
• World Bank (2017). GDP (current S$). https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD
• World Bank (2018a). Women, business and the law 2018, World Bank, Washington D.C. https://wbl.worldbank.org/en/wbl
• World Bank (2018b). Concept note: Stocktaking of experiences and approaches for including childcare in lending operations. World Bank, Washington D.C. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/education/brief/investinchildcare