Araştırma Makalesi
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Kamu Harcamalarının Ekonomik Karmaşıklık Üzerindeki Etkisi: Gelişmekte Olan Ülkeler Üzerine Ampirik Bir Analiz

Yıl 2026, Cilt: 28 Sayı: 1 , 225 - 250 , 20.04.2026
https://doi.org/10.26745/ahbvuibfd.1835848
https://izlik.org/JA43UM96LP

Öz

Klasik karşılaştırmalı üstünlük teorileri, yalnızca üretim faktörlerine dayalı açıklamalarla, İsviçre’nin saat endüstrisindeki veya Belçika’nın çikolata sektöründeki rekabetçi başarısını yeterince izah edememekte; dolayısıyla ülkeler arasındaki göreli gelir farklılıklarını açıklamada sınırlı kalmaktadır. Bu teorik eksiklikleri gidermek amacıyla geliştirilen ekonomik karmaşıklık teorisi, ülkelerin ihracat kompozisyonundaki ürün çeşitliliğini ve bu ürünlerin bilgi ile teknoloji yoğunluğunu dikkate alarak, ekonomik yapının hem derinliğini hem de çeşitliliğini ölçmeyi hedeflemektedir. Özellikle ekonomik karmaşıklığın arttığı bir yapısal dönüşüm sürecinde, bilgi ve beceri yoğun sektörlere yönelik kamu yatırımları, kalkınma stratejilerinin etkinliği açısından kritik bir rol üstlenmektedir. Bu çalışma, kamu harcamalarının ekonomik karmaşıklık üzerindeki etkilerini incelemek amacıyla 2000–2020 dönemine ait panel veri seti kullanılarak, gelişmekte olan 23 ülke örneği üzerinden yürütülmüştür. Literatürdeki çalışmaların büyük bölümü ekonomik karmaşıklık teorisinin çerçevesi ve hesaplama yöntemlerine odaklanmış, bazıları ise karmaşıklık göstergeleri ile ekonomik ve sosyal değişkenler arasındaki ilişkileri farklı örneklem ve dönemler üzerinden incelemiştir. Ancak ekonomik karmaşıklık ile kamu harcamaları arasındaki ilişkiyi, özellikle gelişmekte olan ülkeler bağlamında doğrudan ele alan bir çalışma bulunmamaktadır. Bu araştırma, bu yönüyle literatürdeki önemli bir boşluğu doldurma potansiyeline sahiptir. Ampirik analiz sürecinde, panel veri yapısının temel özellikleri yatay kesit bağımlılığı ve katsayı homojenliği testleriyle değerlendirilmiştir. Serilerin durağanlık yapısı CADF ikinci nesil birim kök testi ile analiz edilmiştir. Uzun dönemli ilişkiler Westerlund (2008) eşbütünleşme testi aracılığıyla ortaya konmuş, eşbütünleşme katsayıları ise CCE-MG yöntemiyle tahmin edilmiştir. Nedensellik ilişkileri ise Dumitrescu-Hurlin (2012) panel nedensellik testiyle incelenmiştir. Bulgular, gelişmekte olan ülkelerde kişi başına düşen gelir düzeyi, kamu eğitim harcamaları ve dışa açıklık oranının ekonomik karmaşıklık düzeyini anlamlı biçimde belirleyen temel faktörler olduğunu göstermektedir.

Kaynakça

  • Albeaik, S., Kaltenberg, M., Alsaleh, M., & Hidalgo, C. A. (2017). 729 new measures of economic complexity (Addendum to Improving Economic Complexity Index). Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1–15.
  • Arı, A. (2023). Beşeri sermaye, kamu harcaması ve ekonomik karmaşıklık ilişkisi: Nedensellik analizi. In Ekonomi ve finans politikaları üzerine çalışmalar (pp. 43–58). Özgür Yayın Dağıtım Ltd. Şti.
  • Balsalobre, S. J. P., Verduras, C. L., & Lanchas, J. D. (2017). Measuring the economic complexity at the sub-national level using international and interregional trade. Ceprede and L. R. Klein Institute, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.
  • Can, M. (2016). Ekonomik küreselleşme sofistike mamul üretimini etkiler mi?: Güney Kore örnekleminde ampirik bir analiz. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 11(3), 21–38.
  • Chudik, A., & Pesaran, M. H. (2013). Large panel data models with cross-sectional dependence: A survey. CAFE Research Paper, 13(15), 1–54.
  • Çolakoğlu, M. (2021). OECD ülkelerinde beşeri sermayenin yüksek teknolojili ürün ihracatı ve ekonomik kompleksite endeksi üzerindeki etkisi (Yüksek lisans tezi). Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Denizli.
  • Dumitrescu, E. I., & Hurlin, C. (2012). Testing for Granger non-causality in heterogeneous panels. Economic Modelling, 29(4), 1450–1460.
  • Emeka, E. T., Ogbuabor, J. E., & Ekeocha, D. O. (2023). Terrorism and economic complexity in Africa: The unconditional impact of military expenditure. African Development Review, 36(1), 139–152.
  • Felipe, J., Kumar, U., Abdon, A., & Bacate, M. (2012). Product complexity and economic development. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 23(1), 36–68.
  • Ferraz, D., H. F. Moralles, J. S. Campoli, F. C. R. Oliveira, and D. A. N. Rebelatto. 2018. “Economic Complexity and Human Development: DEA Performance Measurement in Asia and Latin America.” Gestão & Produção 25: 839–853.
  • Fortunato, P., & Razo, C. (2014). Export sophistication, growth and the middle-income trap. In J. M. Salazar-Xirinachs, I. Nübler, & R. Kozul-Wright (Eds.), Transforming economies: Making industrial policy work for growth, jobs and development (pp. 267–287). Geneva: International Labour Office.
  • Gala, P., Rocha, I., & Magacho, G. (2018). The structuralist revenge: Economic complexity as an important dimension to evaluate growth and development. Brazilian Journal of Political Economy, 38(2), 219–236.
  • Gao, J., & Zhou, T. (2018). Quantifying China’s regional economic complexity. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 492, 1591–1603.
  • Gujarati, D. N. (2004). Basic econometrics (4th ed.). New Delhi: McGraw-Hill.
  • Gül, E., & Yavuz, H. (2011). Türkiye’de kamu harcamaları ile ekonomik büyüme arasındaki nedensellik ilişkisi: 1963–2008 dönemi. Maliye Dergisi, 160, 72–85.
  • Hausmann, R., Hidalgo, C. A., Bustos, S., Coscia, M., Chung, S., Jimenez, J., Simoes, A., & Yildirim, M. A. (2014). The atlas of economic complexity: Mapping paths to prosperity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
  • Hausmann, R., Hidalgo, C. A., Stock, D. P., & Yildirim, M. A. (2022). Implied comparative advantage. Research Policy, 51(1), 104143.
  • Hausmann, R., & Klinger, B. (2006). Structural transformation and patterns of comparative advantage in the product space (CID Working Paper No. 128). Harvard University, Center for International Development.
  • Hidalgo, C. A. (2009). The dynamics of economic complexity and the product space over a 42-year period (CID Working Paper No. 189). Harvard University, Center for International Development.
  • Hidalgo, C. A. (2021). Economic complexity theory and applications. Nature Reviews Physics, 3(2), 92–113. Hidalgo, C. A., & Hausmann, R. (2009). The building blocks of economic complexity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(26), 10570–10575.
  • Holcombe, R. G. (2006). Public sector economics: The role of government in the American economy. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
  • Jarreau, J., & Poncet, S. (2012). Export sophistication and economic growth: Evidence from China. Journal of Development Economics, 97(2), 281–292.
  • Karaş, G. (2022). Kamu harcamalarının AB ve Türkiye açısından karşılaştırmalı analizi. Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekonomik Çalışmalar Dergisi, 4(1), 32–49.
  • Kurt, Ü. (2019). The relationship between economic complexity and education expenditure: An empirical analysis on South Korea. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 9(2), 73–79.
  • Leite, D. W., & Cardoso, L. C. B. (2022). Human capital and technology in the growth of economic structure. Investigación Económica, 82(323), 27–52.
  • Nadaroğlu, H. (1992). Kamu maliyesi teorisi. İstanbul: Beta Basın Yayın Dağıtım A.Ş.
  • OEC. (2025a). Economic Complexity Index (HS4/HS92). Retrieved September 14, 2025, from https://oec.world/en/rankings/eci/hs4/hs92?tab=table
  • OEC. (2025b). PCI Rankings (HS92). The Observatory of Economic Complexity. Retrieved September 1, 2025, from https://oec.world/en/rankings/pci/hs4/hs92?tab=table
  • Okombi, I. F., & Lebomoyi, N. E. (2024). Economic complexity and inclusive green growth: The moderating role of public expenditure on education. Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences, 1–31.
  • Orhaner, E. (2007). Kamu maliyesi. Ankara: Siyasal Kitabevi.
  • Ourens, G. (2013). Can the method of reflections help predict future growth? IRES Discussion Paper, 2013(8), 1–27.
  • Pehlivan, O. (2021). Kamu maliyesi, Trabzon: Celepler Matbaacılık Basın Yayın ve Dağıtım.
  • Pesaran, M. H. (2007). A simple panel unit root test in the presence of cross-section dependence. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 22(2), 265–312.
  • Pesaran, M. H., & Yamagata, T. (2008). Testing slope homogeneity in large panels. Journal of Econometrics, 142(1), 50–98.
  • Pesaran, M. H. (2006). Estimation and inference in large heterogeneous panels with a multifactor error structure. Econometrica, 74(4), 967–1012.
  • Pesaran, M. H. (2021). General diagnostic tests for cross-sectional dependence in panels. Empirical Economics, 60(1), 13–50.
  • Rodrik, D. (2006). What’s so special about China’s exports? China & World Economy, 14(5), 1–19.
  • Sepehrdoust, H., Davarikish, R., & Setarehie, M. (2019). The knowledge-based products and economic complexity in developing countries. Heliyon, 5(12), 1-11.
  • Simoes, A. J. G., & Hidalgo, C. A. (2011). The economic complexity observatory: An analytical tool for understanding the dynamics of economic development. In Scalable integration of analytics and visualization: Papers from the AAAI Workshop (pp. 39–42). AAAI Press.
  • Şimşek, M. H., Demirgil, B., & Okumuş, İ. (2024). Türkiye’deki Kamu Eğitim Harcamalarının Ekonomik Karmaşıklık Üzerindeki Etkisi. Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 21(3), 1729-1739.
  • Uluatam, Ö. (1999). Kamu maliyesi. Ankara: İmaj Yayıncılık.
  • World Bank. (2024a). World Development Indicators: Country and lending groups. Retrieved September 29, 2024, from https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups
  • World Bank. (2024b). World Development Indicators database. Retrieved September 15, 2024, from https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators
  • Westerlund, J. (2008). Panel cointegration tests of the Fisher effect. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 23(2), 193–233.
  • Zhu, S., & Fu, X. (2013). Drivers of export upgrading. World Development, 51, 221–233.
  • Zhu, S., & Li, R. (2017). Economic complexity, human capital and economic growth: Empirical research based on cross-country panel data. Applied Economics, 49(38), 3815–3828.

The Impact of Public Expenditures on Economic Complexity: An Empirical Analysis on Developing Countries

Yıl 2026, Cilt: 28 Sayı: 1 , 225 - 250 , 20.04.2026
https://doi.org/10.26745/ahbvuibfd.1835848
https://izlik.org/JA43UM96LP

Öz

Classical theories of comparative advantage, which explain competitiveness solely in terms of production factors, fall short in accounting for Switzerland’s success in the watch industry or Belgium’s competitiveness in the chocolate sector. Consequently, they remain limited in their ability to explain differences in relative income across countries. To address these theoretical shortcomings, the economic complexity framework was developed. This approach evaluates both the diversity of products within a country’s export basket and the knowledge and technology intensity embedded in these products. By doing so, it aims to measure the depth and diversity of economic structures. Compared to traditional indicators, economic complexity provides a more realistic and predictive assessment of countries’ long-term growth potential. In particular, during structural transformation processes characterized by rising complexity, public investment in knowledge- and skill-intensive sectors is critical to enhancing the effectiveness of development strategies. This study examines how public expenditure influences economic complexity by analyzing panel data from 23 developing countries from 2000 to 2020. The empirical process begins with tests for cross-sectional dependence and coefficient homogeneity to assess the panel's structure. The stationarity of the variables is examined using the second-generation CADF unit root test. Long-run relationships are identified through the Westerlund (2008) cointegration test, and the cointegration coefficients are estimated with the CCE-MG approach. Finally, causal interactions are investigated using the Dumitrescu-Hurlin (2012) panel causality test. The results show that per capita income, government education expenditures, and trade openness are major drivers of economic complexity in developing nations.

Kaynakça

  • Albeaik, S., Kaltenberg, M., Alsaleh, M., & Hidalgo, C. A. (2017). 729 new measures of economic complexity (Addendum to Improving Economic Complexity Index). Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1–15.
  • Arı, A. (2023). Beşeri sermaye, kamu harcaması ve ekonomik karmaşıklık ilişkisi: Nedensellik analizi. In Ekonomi ve finans politikaları üzerine çalışmalar (pp. 43–58). Özgür Yayın Dağıtım Ltd. Şti.
  • Balsalobre, S. J. P., Verduras, C. L., & Lanchas, J. D. (2017). Measuring the economic complexity at the sub-national level using international and interregional trade. Ceprede and L. R. Klein Institute, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.
  • Can, M. (2016). Ekonomik küreselleşme sofistike mamul üretimini etkiler mi?: Güney Kore örnekleminde ampirik bir analiz. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 11(3), 21–38.
  • Chudik, A., & Pesaran, M. H. (2013). Large panel data models with cross-sectional dependence: A survey. CAFE Research Paper, 13(15), 1–54.
  • Çolakoğlu, M. (2021). OECD ülkelerinde beşeri sermayenin yüksek teknolojili ürün ihracatı ve ekonomik kompleksite endeksi üzerindeki etkisi (Yüksek lisans tezi). Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Denizli.
  • Dumitrescu, E. I., & Hurlin, C. (2012). Testing for Granger non-causality in heterogeneous panels. Economic Modelling, 29(4), 1450–1460.
  • Emeka, E. T., Ogbuabor, J. E., & Ekeocha, D. O. (2023). Terrorism and economic complexity in Africa: The unconditional impact of military expenditure. African Development Review, 36(1), 139–152.
  • Felipe, J., Kumar, U., Abdon, A., & Bacate, M. (2012). Product complexity and economic development. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 23(1), 36–68.
  • Ferraz, D., H. F. Moralles, J. S. Campoli, F. C. R. Oliveira, and D. A. N. Rebelatto. 2018. “Economic Complexity and Human Development: DEA Performance Measurement in Asia and Latin America.” Gestão & Produção 25: 839–853.
  • Fortunato, P., & Razo, C. (2014). Export sophistication, growth and the middle-income trap. In J. M. Salazar-Xirinachs, I. Nübler, & R. Kozul-Wright (Eds.), Transforming economies: Making industrial policy work for growth, jobs and development (pp. 267–287). Geneva: International Labour Office.
  • Gala, P., Rocha, I., & Magacho, G. (2018). The structuralist revenge: Economic complexity as an important dimension to evaluate growth and development. Brazilian Journal of Political Economy, 38(2), 219–236.
  • Gao, J., & Zhou, T. (2018). Quantifying China’s regional economic complexity. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 492, 1591–1603.
  • Gujarati, D. N. (2004). Basic econometrics (4th ed.). New Delhi: McGraw-Hill.
  • Gül, E., & Yavuz, H. (2011). Türkiye’de kamu harcamaları ile ekonomik büyüme arasındaki nedensellik ilişkisi: 1963–2008 dönemi. Maliye Dergisi, 160, 72–85.
  • Hausmann, R., Hidalgo, C. A., Bustos, S., Coscia, M., Chung, S., Jimenez, J., Simoes, A., & Yildirim, M. A. (2014). The atlas of economic complexity: Mapping paths to prosperity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
  • Hausmann, R., Hidalgo, C. A., Stock, D. P., & Yildirim, M. A. (2022). Implied comparative advantage. Research Policy, 51(1), 104143.
  • Hausmann, R., & Klinger, B. (2006). Structural transformation and patterns of comparative advantage in the product space (CID Working Paper No. 128). Harvard University, Center for International Development.
  • Hidalgo, C. A. (2009). The dynamics of economic complexity and the product space over a 42-year period (CID Working Paper No. 189). Harvard University, Center for International Development.
  • Hidalgo, C. A. (2021). Economic complexity theory and applications. Nature Reviews Physics, 3(2), 92–113. Hidalgo, C. A., & Hausmann, R. (2009). The building blocks of economic complexity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(26), 10570–10575.
  • Holcombe, R. G. (2006). Public sector economics: The role of government in the American economy. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
  • Jarreau, J., & Poncet, S. (2012). Export sophistication and economic growth: Evidence from China. Journal of Development Economics, 97(2), 281–292.
  • Karaş, G. (2022). Kamu harcamalarının AB ve Türkiye açısından karşılaştırmalı analizi. Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekonomik Çalışmalar Dergisi, 4(1), 32–49.
  • Kurt, Ü. (2019). The relationship between economic complexity and education expenditure: An empirical analysis on South Korea. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 9(2), 73–79.
  • Leite, D. W., & Cardoso, L. C. B. (2022). Human capital and technology in the growth of economic structure. Investigación Económica, 82(323), 27–52.
  • Nadaroğlu, H. (1992). Kamu maliyesi teorisi. İstanbul: Beta Basın Yayın Dağıtım A.Ş.
  • OEC. (2025a). Economic Complexity Index (HS4/HS92). Retrieved September 14, 2025, from https://oec.world/en/rankings/eci/hs4/hs92?tab=table
  • OEC. (2025b). PCI Rankings (HS92). The Observatory of Economic Complexity. Retrieved September 1, 2025, from https://oec.world/en/rankings/pci/hs4/hs92?tab=table
  • Okombi, I. F., & Lebomoyi, N. E. (2024). Economic complexity and inclusive green growth: The moderating role of public expenditure on education. Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences, 1–31.
  • Orhaner, E. (2007). Kamu maliyesi. Ankara: Siyasal Kitabevi.
  • Ourens, G. (2013). Can the method of reflections help predict future growth? IRES Discussion Paper, 2013(8), 1–27.
  • Pehlivan, O. (2021). Kamu maliyesi, Trabzon: Celepler Matbaacılık Basın Yayın ve Dağıtım.
  • Pesaran, M. H. (2007). A simple panel unit root test in the presence of cross-section dependence. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 22(2), 265–312.
  • Pesaran, M. H., & Yamagata, T. (2008). Testing slope homogeneity in large panels. Journal of Econometrics, 142(1), 50–98.
  • Pesaran, M. H. (2006). Estimation and inference in large heterogeneous panels with a multifactor error structure. Econometrica, 74(4), 967–1012.
  • Pesaran, M. H. (2021). General diagnostic tests for cross-sectional dependence in panels. Empirical Economics, 60(1), 13–50.
  • Rodrik, D. (2006). What’s so special about China’s exports? China & World Economy, 14(5), 1–19.
  • Sepehrdoust, H., Davarikish, R., & Setarehie, M. (2019). The knowledge-based products and economic complexity in developing countries. Heliyon, 5(12), 1-11.
  • Simoes, A. J. G., & Hidalgo, C. A. (2011). The economic complexity observatory: An analytical tool for understanding the dynamics of economic development. In Scalable integration of analytics and visualization: Papers from the AAAI Workshop (pp. 39–42). AAAI Press.
  • Şimşek, M. H., Demirgil, B., & Okumuş, İ. (2024). Türkiye’deki Kamu Eğitim Harcamalarının Ekonomik Karmaşıklık Üzerindeki Etkisi. Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 21(3), 1729-1739.
  • Uluatam, Ö. (1999). Kamu maliyesi. Ankara: İmaj Yayıncılık.
  • World Bank. (2024a). World Development Indicators: Country and lending groups. Retrieved September 29, 2024, from https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups
  • World Bank. (2024b). World Development Indicators database. Retrieved September 15, 2024, from https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators
  • Westerlund, J. (2008). Panel cointegration tests of the Fisher effect. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 23(2), 193–233.
  • Zhu, S., & Fu, X. (2013). Drivers of export upgrading. World Development, 51, 221–233.
  • Zhu, S., & Li, R. (2017). Economic complexity, human capital and economic growth: Empirical research based on cross-country panel data. Applied Economics, 49(38), 3815–3828.
Toplam 46 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Maliye Politikası
Bölüm Araştırma Makalesi
Yazarlar

Mustafa Hakan Şimşek 0000-0002-3488-0902

Bünyamin Demirgil 0000-0002-1150-0225

Gönderilme Tarihi 4 Aralık 2025
Kabul Tarihi 8 Nisan 2026
Yayımlanma Tarihi 20 Nisan 2026
DOI https://doi.org/10.26745/ahbvuibfd.1835848
IZ https://izlik.org/JA43UM96LP
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2026 Cilt: 28 Sayı: 1

Kaynak Göster

APA Şimşek, M. H., & Demirgil, B. (2026). Kamu Harcamalarının Ekonomik Karmaşıklık Üzerindeki Etkisi: Gelişmekte Olan Ülkeler Üzerine Ampirik Bir Analiz. Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 28(1), 225-250. https://doi.org/10.26745/ahbvuibfd.1835848