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AFRICA: A Constant Battlefield of Great Power Rivalry

Yıl 2020, Cilt: 22 Sayı: 1, 74 - 97, 08.05.2020

Öz

This study examines the objectives and motivations of
three different episodes of great power rivalry in Africa. The second half of
the 19th century witnessed a competition between European powers in
the brutal partition of Africa by acquiring colonial territories, called the
“scramble for Africa”. During the Cold War, the continent became one of the
battlefields of the global East-West confrontation between the United States and
the Soviet Union. The current great power rivalry in Africa is now taking place
between China and the US. Since the 2000s, China has had extensive economic
investments, intense educational, cultural and political interactions, and
growing military ties in Africa that threatens the US global hegemony.
Analyzing these three eras of great power rivalry in Africa, the study reveals
the different underlying dynamics and features of each era, including the
different strategies that great powers adopted to achieve their objectives
within each era.

Kaynakça

  • Abramova, S. U. (1979). Ideological, doctrinal, philosophical, religious and political aspects of the African slave trade. in The African slave trade from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century. Paris: UNESCO.
  • Adelman, K. L. (1980) African realities. New York: Crane, Russak and Co.
  • AFRICOM. (2019). 2019 posture statement to congress. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.africom.mil/about-the-command/2019-posture-statement-to-congress.
  • AGOA. (2019/a). Annual review of country eligibility for benefits under the African growth and opportunity act. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://agoa.info/images/documents/15604/federal-regsiter-agoa2019-13905.pdf.
  • AGOA. (2019/b). Aggregate bilateral trade between AGOA countries and the United States. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://agoa.info/data/total-trade.html.
  • Akindele, R. A. (1985). Africa and the great powers, with particular reference to the United States, the Soviet Union and China. Africa Spectrum, 20(2), 125-151.Alden, C. (2005). China in Africa. Survival: Global Politics and Strategy, 47(3), 147-164.
  • Barnhart, J. (2016). Status competition and territorial aggression: evidence from the scramble for Africa. Security Studies, 25(3), 385-419.
  • BBC. (2017, October 18). Xi Jinping: ‘time for China to take centre stage. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-41647872.
  • BBC. (2019, August 1). What are the US’s intentions in Africa?. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49096505.
  • Brayton, A. (1979). Soviet involvement in Africa. Journal of Modern African Studies, 17(2), 253-269.
  • British Petroleum. (2019). Statistical review of world energy. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy.html.
  • Broadman, H. G. (2007). Africa’s silk road: China and India’s new economic frontier. Washington, DC: World Bank.
  • Brookes, P. and Shin J. H. (2006). China’s influence in Africa: Implications for the United States. The Heritage Foundation.
  • Brooke-Smit, R. (1987). The scramble for Africa. Hampshire: Macmillan.
  • Carmody, P. and Owusu, F. (2007). Competing hegemons? Chinese versus American geo-economic strategies in Africa. Political Geography, 26(5), 504-524.
  • Coker, C. (1982). Reagan and Africa. The World Today, 38(4), 123-130.
  • Combined Joint Task Force- Horn of Africa. (2019). About the command. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.hoa.africom.mil/about.
  • Conteh-Morgan, E. (2019). Militarization and securitization in Africa: The role of Sino-American geostrategic presence. Insight Turkey, 21(1), 77-93.
  • Cooke, J. (2008). Introduction. In Cooke, J. (ed.) U.S. and Chinese engagement in Africa. Washington, DC: The CSIS Press.
  • Da Veiga Pinto, F. L. (1979). Portuguese participation in the slave trade: Opposing forces, trends, of opinion with Portuguese society, effects on Portugal’s socio-economic development. In The African slave trade from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century. Paris: UNESCO.
  • Dahir, A. L. (2018, May 5). US-China tensions are escalating in Africa as lasers are pointed at US planes over Djibouti. Quartz Africa. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://qz.com/africa/1271069/us-says-china-pointed-laser-at-pilots-over-djibouti-base/.
  • Embassy of the PRC in the Republic of Kenya. (2012, August 8). U.S. plot to sow discord between China, Africa is doomed to fail. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from http://ke.china-embassy.org/eng/zfgx/t966004.htm.
  • Fieldhouse D. K. (1961). Imperialism: An historiographical revision. The Economic History Review, 14(2), 187-209.
  • Gill, B., Huang, C. and Morrison, J. S. (2007). China’s expanding role in Africa: Implications for the United States. Center for Strategic and International Studies.
  • Gosh, J. (2012, August 7). Hillary Clinton’s morally superior speech in Africa was deluded. The Guardian. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2012/aug/07/hillary-clinton-speech-africa-deluded.
  • Hanauer, L. and Morris L. J. (2014). Chinese engagement in Africa: Drivers, reactions, and implications for U.S. policy. Washington, DC: RAND Corporation.
  • Hilsum, L. (2005). Re-Enter the dragon: China’s new mission in Africa. Review of African Political Economy, 32(104/105), 419-425.
  • Hofsted, T. A. (2009). China in Africa: An AFRICOM response. Naval War College Review, 62(3), 79-100.
  • Keltie, J. S. (1966). The scramble after years of preliminary activity. In Betts R.F. (ed.) The “scramble” for Africa: Causes and dimensions of empire. Lexington: D. C. Heath and Company.
  • Kitchen, H. (1983). U.S. interests in Africa. New York: Praeger.
  • Klare, M. and Volman D. (2006/a). America China & the scramble for Africa’s oil. Review of African Political Economy, 33(108), 297-309.
  • Klare, M. and Volman D. (2006/b). The African ‘oil rush’ and US national security. Third World Quarterly, 27(4), 609-628.
  • Langer, W. L. (1951). The diplomacy of imperialism. New York: Knopf.
  • Lawson, C. W. (1988). Soviet economic aid to Africa. African Affairs, 87(349), 501-518.
  • Lucas, C. P. (1966). The scramble and Franco-German national problems. In Betts R.F. (ed.) The “Scramble” for Africa: Causes and Dimensions of Empire. Lexington: D. C. Heath and Company.
  • MacKenzie, J. M. (1983). The partition of Africa, 1880-1900 and European imperialism in the nineteenth century. London and New York: Methuen.
  • Maxwell, K. (1980). A new scramble for Africa. In Hoffman, E.P. and Frederic, J.F. (eds.) The conduct of Soviet foreign policy. New York: Aldine Transaction.
  • McFate, S. (2008). Briefing: US Africa command: Next step or next stumble?. African Affairs, 107(426), 111-120.
  • Ministry of Commerce, Peoples Republic of China. (2019). Statistics on China-Africa trade in 2018. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from http://english.mofcom.gov.cn/article/statistic/lanmubb/AsiaAfrica/201901/20190102831255.shtml.
  • Nutting, A. (1971). Scramble for Africa: The Great Trek to the Boer war. New York: E. P. Dutton.
  • Ongodia, E. A. (2017). China versus the United States in Africa. In Oniwide, O. (ed.) Issues in China Africa relations. Kampala: Kampala International University.
  • Orhonlu, C. (1996). Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun güney siyaseti: Habeş Eyaleti. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları.
  • Orwa, D. K. (1985). African states and the superpowers. In Ojo, O., Orwa, D.K. & Utete, C.M.B. (eds.) African international relations. London: Longman.
  • Oude, B. and Clough, M. (1980). The United States’ year in africa. In Legum, C., Zartman, W.I., Mytelkai L.K. & Langton, S. (eds.) Africa in the 1980s: A continent in crisis. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  • Pakenham, Thomas (1991). The scramble for Africa: The white man’s conquest of the dark continent from 1876 to 1912. New York: Random House.
  • Pant, H. V. (2008). China in Africa: The push continues but all’s not well. Defense & Security Analysis, 24(1), 33-43.
  • Pham, J. P. (2006). China’s African strategy and its implications for U.S. interests. American Foreign Policy Interests, 28, 239-253.
  • Robinson, R. and Gallagher J. (1961). Africa and the victorians. London: Macmillan.
  • Rotberg, R. I. (2008). China’s quest for resources, opportunities, and influence in Africa. In Rotberg, R.I. (ed.) China into Africa: Trade, aid, and influence. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
  • SAIS China Africa Research Initiative. (2019). Other China-Africa data. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from http://www.sais-cari.org/other-data.
  • Sanderson, G. N. (1974). The European partition of Africa: Coincidence or conjuncture?. The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 3(1), 1-54.
  • Sarı, B. (2012). Amerikan ulusal çikarlari ve Afrika. Ankara Üniversitesi Afrika Çalışmaları Dergisi, 1(2), 95-119.
  • Schafer, M. (1982). Mineral myth. Foreign Policy, 47, 154-171.
  • Shinn, D. H. and Eisenman, J. (2012). China and Africa: A century of engagement. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press.
  • Smith, D. (2012, August 1). Hillary Clinton launches African tour with veiled attack on China. The Guardian. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/aug/01/hillary-clinton-africa-china.
  • Stengers, J. (1972). King Leopold’s imperialism. In Owen, R. and Sutcliffe B. (eds.) Studies in the theory of imperialism. London: Longman.
  • Sun, Y. (2014). China in Africa: Implications for U.S. competition and diplomacy. In Top five reasons why Africa should be a priority for the United States. The Brookings Institution.
  • Taylor, I. (2006). China’s oil diplomacy in Africa. International Affairs, 82(5), 937-959.
  • The White House. (2018, December 13). Remarks by national security advisor ambassador John R. Bolton on the Trump Administration’s new Africa strategy. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-national-security-advisor-ambassador-john-r-bolton-trump-administrations-new-africa-strategy/.
  • Thomson, W. S. (1980). African-American nexus in Soviet strategy. In Crocker, C. and Richard, B. (eds.) Africa and international communism. London: Andre Deutsch.
  • Thomson, A. (1996). Incomplete engagement. US foreign policy towards South Africa. Aldershot: Avebury.
  • Thomson, A. (2004). An introduction to African politics. London and New York: Routledge.
  • Thompson, C. B. (2004). US trade with Africa: African growth & opportunity?. Review of African Political Economy, 31(101), 457-474.
  • Tremann, C. (2018, December 20). The new US Africa strategy is not about Africa. It is about China. The Interpreter. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/new-us-africa-strategy-not-about-africa-it-s-about-china.
  • USAID. (2019). Foreign aid explorer. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://explorer.usaid.gov/.
  • U.S. Census Bureau. (2019). Trade in goods with Africa. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/c0013.html.
  • U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission. (2006). 2006 Report to Congress. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/annual_reports/USCC%20Annual%20Report%202006.pdf.
  • U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission. (2017). 2017 Report to Congress. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/annual_reports/2017_Annual_Report_to_Congress.pdf.
  • U.S. Congressional Research Service. (2008, April). China’s foreign policy and “soft power” in South America, Asia, and Africa. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://fas.org/irp/congress/2008_rpt/crs-china.pdf.
  • U.S. Department of Defense. (1995, August 1). U.S. security strategy for Sub-Saharan Africa. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://archive.defense.gov/Speeches/Speech.aspx?SpeechID=943.
  • U.S. Department of Energy. (2005). International energy outlook, 2005. Retrieved from https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/archive/ieo05/pdf/0484(2005).pdf (accessed July 31, 2019).
  • U.S. House of Representatives. (2018, March 7). China in Africa: The new colonialism?. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://docs.house.gov/meetings/FA/FA16/20180307/106963/HHRG-115-FA16-Transcript-20180307.pdf.
  • Vandervort, B. (1998). Wars of imperial conquest in Africa, 1830-1914. London: UCL Press.
  • Wang, J. Y. and Bio-Tchané, A. (2008). Africa’s burgeoning ties with China. Finance and Development, 45(1), Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2008/03/wang.htm.
  • Wehler, H. U. (1970). Bismarck’s imperialism, 1862-1890. Past & Present, 48(1), 119-155.
  • World Bank. (2019). GDP (PPP). Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.PP.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true.
  • Yueh, L. Y. (2007). The rise of China. Irish Studies in International Affairs, 18, 35-43.

Büyük Güçlerin Sürekli Bir Mücadele Alanı: AFRİKA

Yıl 2020, Cilt: 22 Sayı: 1, 74 - 97, 08.05.2020

Öz

Eldeki bu çalışma Afrika kıtası
üzerindeki farklı dönemlerde vuku bulan büyük güçler arasındaki mücadelelerinin
amaçları ve motivasyonlarını ele almaktadır. Bu noktada, 19. yüzyılın ikinci
yarısı “Afrika talanı” olarak adlandırılan Avrupalı güçlerin Afrika’yı
sömürgelere ayırarak parçalama yarışına sahne olmuştur. Soğuk Savaş döneminde
ise kıta, Amerika Birleşik Devletleri ve Sovyetler Birliği arasındaki küresel
Doğu-Batı mücadelesinin bir muharebe alanı haline gelmiştir. Kıta üzerinde hali
hazırdaki büyük güç mücadelesi Çin ve ABD arasında yaşanmaktadır. Nitekim 2000’li
yılların başından itibaren Çin’in Afrika ile büyüyen ekonomik, siyasi ve kültürel
ilişkileri ABD’nin küresel hegemonyasına meydan okuyacak boyutlara ulaşmıştır. Çalışma
Afrika kıtası üzerinde geçmişten günümüze bahsi geçen bu üç büyük güç
mücadelesi dönemine odaklanarak, her dönemin kendine has özelliklerini ve bu
dönemleri şekillendiren büyük güçlerin amaç ve stratejilerini ortaya
koymaktadır.

Kaynakça

  • Abramova, S. U. (1979). Ideological, doctrinal, philosophical, religious and political aspects of the African slave trade. in The African slave trade from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century. Paris: UNESCO.
  • Adelman, K. L. (1980) African realities. New York: Crane, Russak and Co.
  • AFRICOM. (2019). 2019 posture statement to congress. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.africom.mil/about-the-command/2019-posture-statement-to-congress.
  • AGOA. (2019/a). Annual review of country eligibility for benefits under the African growth and opportunity act. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://agoa.info/images/documents/15604/federal-regsiter-agoa2019-13905.pdf.
  • AGOA. (2019/b). Aggregate bilateral trade between AGOA countries and the United States. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://agoa.info/data/total-trade.html.
  • Akindele, R. A. (1985). Africa and the great powers, with particular reference to the United States, the Soviet Union and China. Africa Spectrum, 20(2), 125-151.Alden, C. (2005). China in Africa. Survival: Global Politics and Strategy, 47(3), 147-164.
  • Barnhart, J. (2016). Status competition and territorial aggression: evidence from the scramble for Africa. Security Studies, 25(3), 385-419.
  • BBC. (2017, October 18). Xi Jinping: ‘time for China to take centre stage. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-41647872.
  • BBC. (2019, August 1). What are the US’s intentions in Africa?. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49096505.
  • Brayton, A. (1979). Soviet involvement in Africa. Journal of Modern African Studies, 17(2), 253-269.
  • British Petroleum. (2019). Statistical review of world energy. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy.html.
  • Broadman, H. G. (2007). Africa’s silk road: China and India’s new economic frontier. Washington, DC: World Bank.
  • Brookes, P. and Shin J. H. (2006). China’s influence in Africa: Implications for the United States. The Heritage Foundation.
  • Brooke-Smit, R. (1987). The scramble for Africa. Hampshire: Macmillan.
  • Carmody, P. and Owusu, F. (2007). Competing hegemons? Chinese versus American geo-economic strategies in Africa. Political Geography, 26(5), 504-524.
  • Coker, C. (1982). Reagan and Africa. The World Today, 38(4), 123-130.
  • Combined Joint Task Force- Horn of Africa. (2019). About the command. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.hoa.africom.mil/about.
  • Conteh-Morgan, E. (2019). Militarization and securitization in Africa: The role of Sino-American geostrategic presence. Insight Turkey, 21(1), 77-93.
  • Cooke, J. (2008). Introduction. In Cooke, J. (ed.) U.S. and Chinese engagement in Africa. Washington, DC: The CSIS Press.
  • Da Veiga Pinto, F. L. (1979). Portuguese participation in the slave trade: Opposing forces, trends, of opinion with Portuguese society, effects on Portugal’s socio-economic development. In The African slave trade from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century. Paris: UNESCO.
  • Dahir, A. L. (2018, May 5). US-China tensions are escalating in Africa as lasers are pointed at US planes over Djibouti. Quartz Africa. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://qz.com/africa/1271069/us-says-china-pointed-laser-at-pilots-over-djibouti-base/.
  • Embassy of the PRC in the Republic of Kenya. (2012, August 8). U.S. plot to sow discord between China, Africa is doomed to fail. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from http://ke.china-embassy.org/eng/zfgx/t966004.htm.
  • Fieldhouse D. K. (1961). Imperialism: An historiographical revision. The Economic History Review, 14(2), 187-209.
  • Gill, B., Huang, C. and Morrison, J. S. (2007). China’s expanding role in Africa: Implications for the United States. Center for Strategic and International Studies.
  • Gosh, J. (2012, August 7). Hillary Clinton’s morally superior speech in Africa was deluded. The Guardian. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty-matters/2012/aug/07/hillary-clinton-speech-africa-deluded.
  • Hanauer, L. and Morris L. J. (2014). Chinese engagement in Africa: Drivers, reactions, and implications for U.S. policy. Washington, DC: RAND Corporation.
  • Hilsum, L. (2005). Re-Enter the dragon: China’s new mission in Africa. Review of African Political Economy, 32(104/105), 419-425.
  • Hofsted, T. A. (2009). China in Africa: An AFRICOM response. Naval War College Review, 62(3), 79-100.
  • Keltie, J. S. (1966). The scramble after years of preliminary activity. In Betts R.F. (ed.) The “scramble” for Africa: Causes and dimensions of empire. Lexington: D. C. Heath and Company.
  • Kitchen, H. (1983). U.S. interests in Africa. New York: Praeger.
  • Klare, M. and Volman D. (2006/a). America China & the scramble for Africa’s oil. Review of African Political Economy, 33(108), 297-309.
  • Klare, M. and Volman D. (2006/b). The African ‘oil rush’ and US national security. Third World Quarterly, 27(4), 609-628.
  • Langer, W. L. (1951). The diplomacy of imperialism. New York: Knopf.
  • Lawson, C. W. (1988). Soviet economic aid to Africa. African Affairs, 87(349), 501-518.
  • Lucas, C. P. (1966). The scramble and Franco-German national problems. In Betts R.F. (ed.) The “Scramble” for Africa: Causes and Dimensions of Empire. Lexington: D. C. Heath and Company.
  • MacKenzie, J. M. (1983). The partition of Africa, 1880-1900 and European imperialism in the nineteenth century. London and New York: Methuen.
  • Maxwell, K. (1980). A new scramble for Africa. In Hoffman, E.P. and Frederic, J.F. (eds.) The conduct of Soviet foreign policy. New York: Aldine Transaction.
  • McFate, S. (2008). Briefing: US Africa command: Next step or next stumble?. African Affairs, 107(426), 111-120.
  • Ministry of Commerce, Peoples Republic of China. (2019). Statistics on China-Africa trade in 2018. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from http://english.mofcom.gov.cn/article/statistic/lanmubb/AsiaAfrica/201901/20190102831255.shtml.
  • Nutting, A. (1971). Scramble for Africa: The Great Trek to the Boer war. New York: E. P. Dutton.
  • Ongodia, E. A. (2017). China versus the United States in Africa. In Oniwide, O. (ed.) Issues in China Africa relations. Kampala: Kampala International University.
  • Orhonlu, C. (1996). Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun güney siyaseti: Habeş Eyaleti. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları.
  • Orwa, D. K. (1985). African states and the superpowers. In Ojo, O., Orwa, D.K. & Utete, C.M.B. (eds.) African international relations. London: Longman.
  • Oude, B. and Clough, M. (1980). The United States’ year in africa. In Legum, C., Zartman, W.I., Mytelkai L.K. & Langton, S. (eds.) Africa in the 1980s: A continent in crisis. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  • Pakenham, Thomas (1991). The scramble for Africa: The white man’s conquest of the dark continent from 1876 to 1912. New York: Random House.
  • Pant, H. V. (2008). China in Africa: The push continues but all’s not well. Defense & Security Analysis, 24(1), 33-43.
  • Pham, J. P. (2006). China’s African strategy and its implications for U.S. interests. American Foreign Policy Interests, 28, 239-253.
  • Robinson, R. and Gallagher J. (1961). Africa and the victorians. London: Macmillan.
  • Rotberg, R. I. (2008). China’s quest for resources, opportunities, and influence in Africa. In Rotberg, R.I. (ed.) China into Africa: Trade, aid, and influence. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
  • SAIS China Africa Research Initiative. (2019). Other China-Africa data. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from http://www.sais-cari.org/other-data.
  • Sanderson, G. N. (1974). The European partition of Africa: Coincidence or conjuncture?. The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 3(1), 1-54.
  • Sarı, B. (2012). Amerikan ulusal çikarlari ve Afrika. Ankara Üniversitesi Afrika Çalışmaları Dergisi, 1(2), 95-119.
  • Schafer, M. (1982). Mineral myth. Foreign Policy, 47, 154-171.
  • Shinn, D. H. and Eisenman, J. (2012). China and Africa: A century of engagement. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press.
  • Smith, D. (2012, August 1). Hillary Clinton launches African tour with veiled attack on China. The Guardian. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/aug/01/hillary-clinton-africa-china.
  • Stengers, J. (1972). King Leopold’s imperialism. In Owen, R. and Sutcliffe B. (eds.) Studies in the theory of imperialism. London: Longman.
  • Sun, Y. (2014). China in Africa: Implications for U.S. competition and diplomacy. In Top five reasons why Africa should be a priority for the United States. The Brookings Institution.
  • Taylor, I. (2006). China’s oil diplomacy in Africa. International Affairs, 82(5), 937-959.
  • The White House. (2018, December 13). Remarks by national security advisor ambassador John R. Bolton on the Trump Administration’s new Africa strategy. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-national-security-advisor-ambassador-john-r-bolton-trump-administrations-new-africa-strategy/.
  • Thomson, W. S. (1980). African-American nexus in Soviet strategy. In Crocker, C. and Richard, B. (eds.) Africa and international communism. London: Andre Deutsch.
  • Thomson, A. (1996). Incomplete engagement. US foreign policy towards South Africa. Aldershot: Avebury.
  • Thomson, A. (2004). An introduction to African politics. London and New York: Routledge.
  • Thompson, C. B. (2004). US trade with Africa: African growth & opportunity?. Review of African Political Economy, 31(101), 457-474.
  • Tremann, C. (2018, December 20). The new US Africa strategy is not about Africa. It is about China. The Interpreter. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/new-us-africa-strategy-not-about-africa-it-s-about-china.
  • USAID. (2019). Foreign aid explorer. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://explorer.usaid.gov/.
  • U.S. Census Bureau. (2019). Trade in goods with Africa. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/c0013.html.
  • U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission. (2006). 2006 Report to Congress. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/annual_reports/USCC%20Annual%20Report%202006.pdf.
  • U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission. (2017). 2017 Report to Congress. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/annual_reports/2017_Annual_Report_to_Congress.pdf.
  • U.S. Congressional Research Service. (2008, April). China’s foreign policy and “soft power” in South America, Asia, and Africa. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://fas.org/irp/congress/2008_rpt/crs-china.pdf.
  • U.S. Department of Defense. (1995, August 1). U.S. security strategy for Sub-Saharan Africa. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://archive.defense.gov/Speeches/Speech.aspx?SpeechID=943.
  • U.S. Department of Energy. (2005). International energy outlook, 2005. Retrieved from https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/archive/ieo05/pdf/0484(2005).pdf (accessed July 31, 2019).
  • U.S. House of Representatives. (2018, March 7). China in Africa: The new colonialism?. Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://docs.house.gov/meetings/FA/FA16/20180307/106963/HHRG-115-FA16-Transcript-20180307.pdf.
  • Vandervort, B. (1998). Wars of imperial conquest in Africa, 1830-1914. London: UCL Press.
  • Wang, J. Y. and Bio-Tchané, A. (2008). Africa’s burgeoning ties with China. Finance and Development, 45(1), Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2008/03/wang.htm.
  • Wehler, H. U. (1970). Bismarck’s imperialism, 1862-1890. Past & Present, 48(1), 119-155.
  • World Bank. (2019). GDP (PPP). Retrieved July 31, 2019, from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.PP.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true.
  • Yueh, L. Y. (2007). The rise of China. Irish Studies in International Affairs, 18, 35-43.
Toplam 77 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Bölüm Ana Bölüm
Yazarlar

Buğra Sarı 0000-0001-6428-1292

Yayımlanma Tarihi 8 Mayıs 2020
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2020 Cilt: 22 Sayı: 1

Kaynak Göster

APA Sarı, B. (2020). AFRICA: A Constant Battlefield of Great Power Rivalry. Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli Üniversitesi İktisadi Ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 22(1), 74-97.