Analysis of Migration in Europe from the Perspective of Employment and Ethno-Religion

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 7 Sayı: 1, 209 - 234, 31.01.2023

Hamit Özman

https://doi.org/10.29023/alanyaakademik.1101217

Öz

The phenomenon of migration is examined in the context of the reference established between capitalism and religion in this study. The theoretical basis of the study is the inequality of opportunity for some ethnic groups and Muslims in Europe. Within the scope of the study, the labor markets of England and Wales were examined as sample countries to analyze the effect of religious affiliation on employment markets. In these countries, it has been determined that the most disadvantaged religious group in terms of employment markets is Muslims. In the findings, it has been determined that there is a statistically significant difference against Muslims in terms of employment rates between Muslims and Christians in the active labor force in the relevant countries. According to another regression analysis result in the study to investigate the existence of a relationship between religious groups and wages, being Jewish has a positive effect on wages, while being Muslim has a reducing effect on wages.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Immigration Capitalism, Equality of Opportunity, Ethno-Religious Identitiy, The European Union

Avrupa’da Göç Olgusunun İstihdam ve Etno-Din Perspektifinden Analizi

Öz

Bu çalışmada göç olgusu, kapitalizm ve din arasında kurulan referans bağlamında incelenmiştir. Çalışmanın teorik altyapısını, Avrupa’da bazı etnik gruplara ve Müslümanlara yönelik fırsat eşitsizliği oluşturmaktadır. Çalışma kapsamında, dini mensubiyetin istihdam piyasalarına olan etkisini analiz etmek üzere örnek ülkeler olarak İngiltere ve Galler işgücü piyasaları incelenmiştir. Söz konusu ülkelerde, istihdam piyasaları açısından en dezavantajlı dini grubun Müslümanlar olduğu belirlenmiştir. Elde edilen bulgularda, ilgili ülkelerde aktif işgücünde Müslümanlar ile Hristiyanlar arasında istihdam oranları bakımından Müslümanlar aleyhine istatistikî açıdan anlamlı bir farklılık olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Çalışmada, dini gruplar ile ücret arasında bir ilişkinin varlığını araştırmak için yapılan bir diğer regresyon analizi sonucuna göre, Yahudi olmak, alınan ücret üzerinde pozitif bir etkiye sahip iken Müslüman olmak, ücreti azaltıcı bir etki yaratmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Göç, Kapitalizm, Fırsat Eşitliği, Etnik ve Dini Kimlik, Avrupa Birliği

Kaynakça

• ALBAYRAK, Ö. (2008, Aralık 13). “İnanç Bahane, Sekülerleşme Şahane”. Erişim tarihi: 04.01.2021, http://www.yenisafak.com/yazarlar/ozlemalbayrak/inanc-bahane-sekulerlesme-sahane14295
• ARICAN, K. (2011). “Felsefî ve Teolojik Bir Problem Olarak Dini Çeşitlilik”. Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 15(1), 71-98.
• ARRIGHI, G. (1994). The Long Twentieth Century: Money, Power, and The Origins of Our Times. New York: Verso
• ASLAN, A. (2002). “Küreselleşme ve Din”. Köprü Dergisi, 77.
• AZZI, C. & Ehrenber,R. (1975). “Household Allocation of Time and Church Attendance”. Journal of Political Economy. February, 83, pp. 27–56
• BIRMINGHAM CITY COUNCIL (TY). “Population Overview” Erişim Tarihi: 12.09.2022. https://www.birmingham.gov.uk/info/50265/supporting_healthier_communities/2436/faith_and_religious_communities/2
• BORJAS, G.J. (1994). “The Economics of Immigration”. Journal of EconomicLiterature, 22, 1667-1717
• CASTLES, S., & MILLER, M. (2008). “Göçler Çağı: Modern Dünyada Uluslararası Göç Hareketleri.” (Çev. B. U. Bal & İ. Akbulut), İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi.
• COŞKUN, H. (2017). “Küreselleşme Sürecinde Din”. Gaziosmanpaşa Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 5(2), 115-134.
• DEMİR, T. (2013). “Dini Çoğulculuk”. Liberal Düşünce Dergisi, (71), 41-64.
• DE LA FUENTE, A. (2011). “Human Capital and Productivity”. Nordic Economic Policy Review, 2(2), 103-132.
• DESHPANDE, A., & SINGH, J. (2021), ‘Dropping Out, Being Pushed Out or Can’t Get in? Decoding Declining Labour Force Participation of Indian Women’, IZA Discussion Paper No. 14639.
• DORLING, D., & RIGBY, J. E. (2007). “Net Cohort Migration in England and Wales: How Past Birth Trends May Influence Net Migration.” Population Review, 46(2), 51-62.
• DREHER, S., & SMITH, P. J. (Ed.). (2016). “Religious Activism in the Global Economy: Promoting, Reforming, or Resisting Neoliberal Globalization?”. Rowman & Littlefield.
• EKİNCİ, İ. ( 2019). Türkiye’de Küreselleşme Ekonomi ve Din. Ankara: İKSAD Yayınları, ISBN: 978-605-7695-67-3
• EUROEAN COMMISSION (2010). “A European Strategy for Smart, Sustainable and Inclusive Growth”. Erişim Tarihi: 11.12.2021, https://ec.europa.eu/eu2020/pdf/
• EUROEAN COMMISSION (2011). “2014-2020 long-term EU budget”. Erişim Tarihi: 25.12.2021, https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/eu-budget/long-term-eu-budget/2014-2020_en
• EUROEAN COMMISSION (2019). “Discrimination in the EU”, Special Baromete. Erişim Tarihi: 27.12.2020, https://ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/index.cfm/Survey/getSurveyDetail/instruments/SPECIAL/surveyKy/2251
• EUROEAN COMMISSION (2020). “Multiannual Financial Framework 2021-2027”. Erişim Tarihi: 25.12.2021, https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/about_the_european_commission/eu_budget/mff_2021-2027_breakdown_current_prices.pdf
• EUROEAN COMMISSION. (2020). “Europe 2020 Targets: Statistics and Indicators for Europe”. Erişim Tarihi: 12.02.2022, https://ec.europa.eu/info/business-economy-euro/economic-and-fiscal-policy-coordination/eu-economic-governance-monitoring-prevention-correction/european-semester/european-semester-your-country_en
• EUROSTAT(2020). “Euro AreaUnemployment”. Erişim Tarihi: 10.12.2020, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/10662309
• EUROSTAT (2021). “Employment Rates of Recent Graduates”. Erişim Tarihi: 10.02.2022, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=File:Employment_rates_of_recent_graduates
• EUROSTAT (2022). “Unemployment Statistics”. Erişim Tarihi: 10.04.2022, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Unemployment_statistics#Unemployment_in_the_EU_and_the_euro_area
• EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT (2009). “Briefing Note for the Meeting of the EMPL”, Erişim Tarihi: 17.01.2022, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2009_2014/documents/empl/dv/lisbonstrategybn_/lisbonstrategybn_en.pdf
• EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT (2014). “Presidency Conclusions. Lisbon European Council”, Erişim Tarihi: 27.12.2021, https://www.consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/ec/00100-r1.en0.htm
• FISHER, M. H. (2006). “Counterflows to Colonialism: Indian Traveller and Settler in Britain 1600–1857”. Orient Blackswan.
• FROY, F., & PYNE, L. (2011). Ensuring Labour Market Success for Ethnic Minority and Immigrant Youth. OECD Local Economic and Employment Development Working Papers
• GALLUP NEWS (2016). “Syrian Refugees Not Welcome in Eastern Europe”. Erişim Tarihi: 07.01.2021, http://news.gallup.com/poll/209828/syrian-refugees-not-welcome-eastern-europe.aspx
• GIDDENS, A. (1976). “Classical Social Theory and the Origins of Modern Sociology”. American Journal of Sociology, 81(4), 703-729.
• GOERGEN, M. (2007). “The Causes of Wage Differentials Between Immigrant and Native Physicians in the United States”.The Park Place Economist, 15 (1), 64-71
• HAJJ, M., & PANIZZA, U. (2006). “Religion and Gender Gap, Are Muslims Different?”, Universita del Piemonte Orientale Working paper,
• HEATH, A., ROTHON, C., & KILPI, E. (2008). “The Second Generation in Western Europe: Education, Unemployment, and Occupational Attainment”. Annual Review of Sociology, 34, 211–235.
• JAYACHANDRAN, S. (2021), “Social Norms as a Barrier to Women’s Employment in Developing Countries”, International Monetary Fund Economic Review, 69(3): 576-595.
• KAHANEC, M., ZAICEVA, A., & ZIMMERMANN, K. F. (2011). “Ethnic Minorities in the European Union: An Overview”. Ethnic Diversity in European Labor Markets. Discussion Paper No. 5397, IZA
• KEYMAN, E. F., & SARIBAY, A. Y. (1998). “Küreselleşme Sivil Toplum ve İslam.” Ankara: Vadi Yayınları
• KILINÇ, S., & YENER, S. (2019). “Din ve Girişimcilik”. Gümüshane Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Elektronik Dergisi, 10(3).
• KURT, A. (2015). “Din Sosyolojisi”, İstanbul: Sentez Yayınları.
• KORSTANJE, M.E. (2015). “A Difficult World: Examining theRoots of Capitalism”. New York, Nova Science Publishers.
• LEE, E.S. (1966). “A Theory of Migration”. Demography 3 (1), 47–57.
• LEWIS, A. W. (1966), “Sınırsız Emek Arzı ile İktisadi Kalkınma”, Çev. Metin Berk, İktisadi Kalkınma Seçme Yazılar, ODTÜ, İİBF, Ankara, 89-131.
• LINDEMANN, A., & STOLZ, J. (2018). “The Muslim Employment Gap, Human Capital and Ethno-Religious Penalties: Evidence from Switzerland”. Social Inclusion, 6(2), 151-161.
• LUCAS, R. E. (1988). “On the Mechanics of Economic Development.” Journal of Monetary Economics, 22(1), 3-42.
• MACİT, N. (2003). “Küreselleşme, Siyaset ve Din”. Dini Araştırmalar, 6 / 17
• NEFF, D., SEN, K., & KLING, V. (2012), ‘The Puzzling Decline in Rural Women's Labor Force Participation in India: A Reexamination’, GIGA Working Paper No. 196.
• OECD (2022). “Labour Force Participation Rate, by sex and age group”. Erişim Tarihi: 21.02.2022. https://stats.oecd.org/index.aspx?queryid=103872
• OECD (2022). “Foreign-born Population” Erişim Tarihi: 21.04.2022. https://data.oecd.org/migration/foreign-born-population.htm
• ONS (TY). “Time Series Explorer”. Erişim Tarihi: 07.01.2022. https://www.ons.gov.uk/timeseriestool
• ONS (TY). “Local Statistics”. Erişim Tarihi: 07.01.2022. https://www.ons.gov.uk/help/localstatistics
• PEW INSTITUTE (2010). “Religion and Education around the World”. Erişim Tarihi: 07.12.2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2016/12/13/religion-and-education-around-the-world/
• PEW INSTITUTE (2016). “The Most and Least Educated U.S. Religious Groups”. Erişim Tarihi: 15.02.2022. 04.12.2020,https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/11/04/the-most-and-least-educated-u-s-religious-groups/
• PEW INSTITUTE (2017). “Europe’s Growing Muslim Population”. Erişim Tarihi: 07.12.2021, https://www.pewforum.org/2017/11/29/europes-growing-muslim-population/
• PEW INSTITUTE (2017). “Global Attitudes Survey-2017”. Erişim Tarihi: 13.12.2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/global/dataset/spring-2017-survey-data/
• PEW INSTITUTE (2018). Being Christian in Western Europe. Erişim Tarihi: 11.12.2021, https://www.pewforum.org/2018/05/29/being-christian-in-western-europe/
• PEW RESEARCH CENTER (2015). “The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010-2050”. Erişim Tarihi: 13.11.2021, https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2015/04/02/religious-projections-2010-2050/
• PEW RESEARCH CENTER (2018). “The Age Gap in Religion Around the World”. Erişim Tarihi: 11.01.2022. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2018/06/13/the-age-gap-in-religion-around-the-world
• RAVENSTEIN, E. G. (1889). “The Laws of Migration”. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 52(2), 241-305.
• RINEHART, J. F. (2004). “Religion in World Politics: Why the Resurgence?”, International Studies Review, 6 (2)
• STATISTA (2021). “Employment Rate in the European Union 2005-2021”. Erişim Tarihi: 11.01.2022, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1194672/employment-rate-in-europe/
• TUIK (2021). “İşgücü İstatistikleri, 2021”. Erişim Tarihi: 26.03.2022, https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Isgucu-Istatistikleri-2021-45645,
• UNHCR (2019). “Global Trends-2019”. https://www.unhcr.org/5ee200e37.pdf. (11.01.2021)
• WALLERSTEIN, I. (1998). “Jeopolitik ve Jeokültür”, (çev. Mustafa ÖZEL), İstanbul: İz Yayınları.
• WEBER, M. (1930).” The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism”. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
• WORLD BANK (2022). “GDP per capita (Current US$) ”. Erişim Tarihi: 22.01.2022, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD
• WOLPERT, J. (1966). “Migration as an Adjustment to Environmental Stress”. Journal of Social Issues, 22(4), 92-102.
• WVS - World Values Survey (2020). “World Values Survey 7”. Erişim Tarihi: 26.01.2022, https://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSDocumentationWV7.jsp
• WVS (2020). “The Inglehart-Welzel World Cultural Map ” Erişim Tarihi: 26.02.2022. http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/
• ZIMMERMANN, K. F.,KAHANEC, M., CONSTANT, A., DEVORETZ, D. J., GATAULLINA, L., & ZAICEVA, A. (2008). “Study on the Social and Labour Market Integration of Ethnic Minorities”, 1-166.Bonn: IZA.
• ZELINSKY, W. (1971). “The Hypothesis of the Mobility Transition”. Geographical Review 61 (2):219–249