Declining Regionalization in the Absence of U.S. Dominance

Öz

Regionalization has been an important component within the international relations that typically is associated with the idea of globalization. Globalization has been an important idea for reasons of global peace and stability. However, globalization efforts could only take off right after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Since then, international organizations such as the United Nations, regional organizations such as the NATO have been struggling to keep the ideal of globalization intact. Other regional organizations in Asia and Africa have especially been wary of external interventions and together with the failures regarding genocides and civil wars in Ruanda, Srebrenitsa and the war in Ukraine and the occupation and destruction of Gaza have demonstrated that neither the UN, NATO or the International Criminal Courts have been successful in upholding international law, global peace and economic stability. These have been causes for degradation and distrust in one global world. Instead, these experiences have been furthering the belief that international regionalization has been failing, with direct consequences for modernization and democratization.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Regional Organizations
• Functionalism
• Neo-functionalism
• Intergovernmentalism

ABD Hakimiyeti Eksikliğinde Bölgeselciliğin Gerilemesi

Öz

Bölgeselleşme, genellikle küreselleşme fikriyle ilişkilendirilen uluslararası ilişkilerde önemli bir bileşen olmuştur. Küreselleşme, küresel barış ve istikrar açısından önemli bir fikir olmuştur. Ancak, küreselleşme çabaları yalnızca Sovyetler Birliği'nin çöküşünden hemen sonra ivme kazanabilmiştir. O zamandan beri Birleşmiş Milletler gibi uluslararası örgütler, NATO gibi bölgesel örgütler, küreselleşme idealini korumak için mücadele etmektedir. Asya ve Afrika'daki diğer bölgesel örgütler özellikle dış müdahalelere karşı temkinli olmuş ve Ruanda'daki soykırım, Srebrenitsa'daki katliam, Ukrayna'daki savaş ve Gazze'nin işgali ve yıkımı, Lübnan’a saldırılar gibi olaylar Birleşmiş Milletler, NATO veya Uluslararası Ceza Mahkemeleri'nin uluslararası hukuku, küresel barışı ve ekonomik istikrarı korumada başarılı olamadığını göstermektedir. Bu durum, küresel bir dünyaya olan güvenin ve inancın zayıflamasına neden olmuştur. Bunun yerine, bu deneyimler uluslararası bölgeselleşmenin başarısız olduğu ve bunun modernleşme ve demokratikleşme üzerinde doğrudan etkileri olduğu inancını pekiştirmiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Bölgesel kuruluşlar
• Fonksiyonalizm
• Neo-fonksyonalizm
• Hükümetlerarasıcılık

Kaynakça

1. Acharya, A., & Johnston, A. I. (2007). Crafting cooperation: Regional international institutions in comparative perspective. Cambridge University Press.
2. Andrei, L. (2012). The economic integration: Concept and end of process. Thoery of Applied Economics, 19(10).
3. Balassa, B. (2013). The theory of economic integration (routledge revivals). Routledge.
4. Barca, F., McCann, P., & Rodríguez‐Pose, A. (2012). The case for regional development intervention: Place‐based versus place‐neutral approaches. Journal of Regional Science, 52(1), 134–152.
5. Brands, H., Feaver, P. D., Inboden, W., & Miller, P. D. (2017). Critical Assumptions and American Grand Strategy. Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments.
6. Burfisher, M. E., Robinson, S., & Thierfelder, K. (2004). Regionalism: Old and new, theory and practice.
7. Deutsch, K. W. (2015). Political community and the North American area (Vol. 2305). Princeton University Press.
8. Erhan, Ç., & Akdemir, E. (2019). Regional Organizations. Anadolu University Publications.

9. Fawcett, L. (2019). Regionalism in the Middle East and North Africa. In The Routledge Handbook to the Middle East and North African State and States System (pp. 297–311). Routledge.
10. Fligstein, N., Polyakova, A., & Sandholtz, W. (2012). European integration, nationalism and European identity. JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies, 50, 106–122.
11. Friedman, M. (2002). Capitalism and freedom (1962). University of Chicago Press. Chicago.
12. Fry, E. H. (2007). The Decline of the American Superpower. 5(2), 0000102202154088841153.
13. Giorgi, L., & Pohoryles, R. J. (2005). Challenges to EU Political Integration and the Role of Democratization. Innovation, 18(4), 407–418.
14. Gray, J., & Slapin, J. B. (2013). Exit options and the effectiveness of regional economic organizations. Political Science Research and Methods, 1(2), 281–303.
15. Haas, E. B. (1994). Beyond the nation-state. New York: Random.
16. Haas, E. B. (2008). Beyond the nation state: Functionalism and international organization. ECPR Press.
17. Haftel, Y. Z. (2012). Regional economic institutions and conflict mitigation: Design, implementation, and the promise of peace. University of Michigan Press.
18. Haftel, Y. Z., & Thompson, A. (2006). The independence of international organizations: Concept and applications. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 50(2), 253–275.
19. Halderman, J. W. (1962). Legal basis for United Nations armed forces. American Journal of International Law, 56(4), 971–996.
20. Hettne, B., & Söderbaum, F. (2006). Regional cooperation: A tool for addressing regional and global challenges. 179–244.
21. Hix, S., & Høyland, B. (2022). The political system of the European Union. Bloomsbury Publishing.
22. Hoffmann, S. (1995). An American Social Science: International Relations (1977). Springer.
23. Hooghe, L., & Marks, G. (2018). Cleavage theory meets Europe’s crises: Lipset, Rokkan, and the transnational cleavage. Journal of European Public Policy, 25(1), 109–135.
24. Iriye, A. (2002). Global community: The role of international organizations in the making of the contemporary world. Univ of California Press.
25. Ishikawa, K. (2021). The ASEAN Economic Community and ASEAN economic integration. Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies, 10(1), 24–41.
26. Islam, A. M. (n.d.). Shift in Global Economic Power and Appearance of China and India as Emerging Tigers. Editorial Board.
27. Jensen, C. S. (2013). Neo-functionalism. European Union Politics, 4.
28. Jetschke, A., Münch, S., Cardozo-Silva, A. R., & Theiner, P. (2021). Patterns of (dis) similarity in the design of regional organizations: The Regional Organizations Similarity Index (ROSI). International Studies Perspectives, 22(2), 181–200.
29. Jetschke, A., & Theiner, P. (2016). The diffusion of institutional design among regional organizations. Available at SSRN 2735715.
30. Jones, E., Kelemen, R. D., & Meunier, S. (2016). Failing forward? The Euro crisis and the incomplete nature of European integration. Comparative Political Studies, 49(7), 1010–1034.
31. Keaney, M. (2013). From hubris to nemesis: Tackling US decline. Political Studies Review, 11(3), 358–368.
32. Kirshner, J. (2014). American power after the financial crisis. Cornell University Press.
33. Kotlowski, D. J. (2000). The European Union: From Jean Monnet to the Euro. Ohio University Press.
34. Krapohl, S., Krapohl, & Brian. (2017). Regional integration in the Global South. Springer.
35. Krapohl, S., & Vasileva-Dienes, A. (2020). The region that isn’t: China, Russia and the failure of regional integration in Central Asia. Asia Europe Journal, 18(3), 347–366.
36. Krasner, S. D. (1976). State power and the structure of international trade. World Politics, 28(3), 317–347.
37. Krugman, P. (2013). Revenge of the optimum currency area. NBER Macroeconomics Annual, 27(1), 439–448.
38. MacLeod, G. (2001). New regionalism reconsidered: Globalization and the remaking of political economic space. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 25(4), 804–829.
39. Mankoff, J. (2013). The United States and Central Asia after 2014. Center for Strategic and International Studies Washington, DC.
40. Melnikovová, L. (2020). China’s interests in Central Asian economies. Human Affairs, 30(2), 239–252.
41. Mendes, A. C. (2016). The Marketing of Postcolonial Literature. Postcolonial Studies Meets Media Studies: A Critical Encounter, 215–231.
42. Mikesell, R. F. (1958). The Lessons of Benelux and the European Coal and Steel Community for the European Economic Community. The American Economic Review, 48(2), 428–441.
43. Mitrany, D. (1948). The functional approach to world organization. International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-), 24(3), 350–363.
44. Moravcsik, A. (1992). Liberalism and international relations theory. Center for International Affairs, Harvard University Cambridge, MA.
45. Nye Jr, J. S. (1990). The changing nature of world power. Political Science Quarterly, 105(2), 177–192.
46. Papadopoulos, Y. (2007). Problems of democratic accountability in network and multilevel governance. European Law Journal, 13(4).
47. Park JeongWon, B., Adibayeva, A., & Saari, D. (2021). THE INFLUENCE OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE PROCESS OF CENTRAL ASIAN REGIONALIZATION. Journal of Philosophy, Culture & Political Science, 78(4).
48. Pugnet, A. (2024, June 27). EU’s von der Leyen assesses bloc’s defence needs to €500 billion. Euractiv. https://www.euractiv.com/section/defence-and-security/news/eus-von-der-leyen-assesses-blocs-defence-needs-to-e500-billion/
49. Rosamond, B. (2000). Theories of European integration.
50. Rosser, B. J. (1995). The effects of United States intervention in Latin America: A comparative analysis of political instability, 1958-1988. Texas A&M University.
51. Seckinger, R. L. (1976). South American power politics during the 1820s. Hispanic American Historical Review, 56(2), 241–267.
52. Signé, L., & Madden, P. (2021). Considerations for rules of origin under the African Continental Free Trade Area. Journal of African Trade, 8(Suppl 2), 77–87.
53. Söderbaum, F. (2009). Comparative regional integration and regionalism. The SAGE Handbook of Comparative Politics, 477–496.
54. Special Coordinator, Stressing ‘All Sides Must Urgently Change Course’, Appeals to Security Council for Support of Gaza’s Political Future. (2024, May 29). United Nations.
55. Spinelli, A., Rossi, E., & Deutsch, K. (2017). Interwar and Post-war Ideas of Europe. Debates on European Integration: A Reader, 16.
56. Spolaore, E. (2013). What is European integration really about? A political guide for economists. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27(3), 125–144.
57. Taskinsoy, J. (2020). From Primitive Barter to Inflationary Dollar: A Warless Economic Weapon of Mass Destruction. Available at SSRN 3542145.
58. Valuev, V. (2000). Globalization through Regionalization: The Case of Russia. International Journal of Political Economy, 30(3), 21–43.
59. Verdun, A., & Laursen, F. (2020). Intergovernmentalism: Old, liberal, and new. Oxford Research Encyclopedias.
60. Wendt, A. (1999). Social theory of international politics (Vol. 67). Cambridge university press.