Askerî Zaferlerden Diplomasiye: Eyyûbî Hükümdarı el-Melikü’l-Âdil’in Franklarla İlişkileri

Öz

Bu çalışma, Eyyûbî Devleti’nin önemli hükümdarlarından biri olan el-Melikü’l-Âdil’in (ö. 1218) Franklarla ilişkilerini kapsamlı bir şekilde analiz etmektedir. el-Melikü’l-Âdil, ağabeyi Selâhaddîn-i Eyyûbî’nin (1169-1193) Mısır naibi olarak görev yaptığı dönemde, Mısır’ın imkânlarından yararlanarak Franklara karşı verilen mücadelede askerî, lojistik ve diplomatik roller üstlenmiştir. Beytü’l-Ahzân kalesinin yıkılması, Beyrut kuşatması, Kızıldeniz zaferleri, Hıttin savaşı ve Kudüs’ün fethi gibi kritik harekatlarda etkin rol oynamıştır. Üçüncü Haçlı Seferi’nde İngiltere Kralı Aslan Yürekli Richard/Richard the Lionheart ile yürüttüğü müzakereler diplomatik yeteneklerini ortaya koymaktadır. Nâipliği döneminde savaşların yıkımını tecrübe etmiş bir hükümdar olarak el-Melikü’l-Âdil, tahta geçtikten sonra devletin ekonomik istikrarını ve güçlenmesini öncelemiş, yeni Haçlı seferlerini tetiklememek için diplomasi ağırlıklı bir politika benimsemiştir. 1205 antlaşması bu yaklaşımın somut örneğini teşkil etmektedir. Çalışmanın temel amacı, el-Melikü’l-Âdil’in Franklara karşı izlediği politikalarının evrimini kapsamlı bir şekilde analiz etmektir. Çalışmada, İmâdeddîn el-İsfahânî, İbn Şeddâd ve İbnü’l-Esîr gibi Eyyûbî tarihinin temel kaynaklarındaki verilerin Batılı kaynaklardan elde edilen verilerle mukayese edildiği tarihsel analiz yöntemi kullanılmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• İslam Tarihi
• Eyyûbîler
• el-Melikü’l-Âdil
• Selâhaddîn-i Eyyûbî
• Franklar
• Haçlı Seferleri

From Military Victories to Diplomacy: The Relations of the Ayyubid Ruler al-Malik al- ‘Ādil with the Franks

Abstract

This study comprehensively analyzes the relations of al-Malik al-‘Ādil (d. 1218), one of the prominent rulers of the Ayyūbid State, with the Franks. During the period he served as the deputy (nā’ib) of Egypt for his elder brother Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn al-Ayyūbī (1169–1193), al-Malik al-‘Ādil undertook military, logistical, and diplomatic roles in the struggle against the Franks by utilizing the resources of Egypt. He played an active role in critical operations such as the destruction of the fortress of Bayt al-Aḥzān, the siege of Beirut, the Red Sea victories, the Battle of Ḥaṭṭīn, and the conquest of Jerusalem. The negotiations he conducted with the King of England, Richard the Lionheart, during the Third Crusade demonstrate his diplomatic skills. As a ruler who experienced the devastation of wars during his deputyship, al-Malik al-‘Ādil prioritized the economic stability and strengthening of the state after ascending the throne and adopted a diplomacy-oriented policy in order not to trigger new Crusades. The Treaty of 1205 constitutes a concrete example of this approach. The primary objective of the study is to comprehensively analyze the evolution of the policies pursued by al-Malik al-‘Ādil against the Franks. In the study, the historical analysis method, in which data from primary sources of Ayyūbid history such as ‘Imād al-Dīn al-Iṣfahānī, Ibn Shaddād, and Ibn al-Athīr are compared with data obtained from Western sources, has been employed.

Keywords

• Islamic History
• Ayyūbids
• al-Malik al-‘Ādil
• Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn al-Ayyūbī
• Franks
• Crusades

Kaynakça

1. Abu-Munshar, M. Y. (2016). Jerusalem between Sultan Salah al-Dîn and King Richard I: Search for peace. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 8(4), 177–184. https://doi.org/10.30845/ijhss.v8n4p24
2. Abū al-Fidā’, I. I. (n.d.). Al-Mukhtaṣar fī akhbār al-bashar (The Concise History of Humanity) (M. Z. Azb, Ed.). Dār al-Ma‘ārif (Dar al-Maarif Publications).
3. Abū Shāma, A. S. (2002a). Al-Rawḍatayn fī akhbār al-dawlatayn: al-Nūriyya wa al-Ṣalāḥiyya (The Two Gardens in the History of the Two Dynasties: The Nurid and the Saladinid) (I. Shams al-Dīn, Ed.). Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyya (Scientific Books House).
4. Abū Shāma, A. S. (2002b). Al-Dhayl ‘alā al-rawḍatayn (tarājim rijāl al-qarnayn al-sādis wa al-sābi‘) (The Supplement to the Two Gardens: Biographies of Men of the Sixth and Seventh Centuries) (I. Shams al-Dīn, Ed.). Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyya (Scientific Books House).
5. Ailes, M. (2007). The admirable enemy? Saladin and Saphadin in Ambroise’s Estoire de la guerre sainte. In P. W. Edbury (Ed.), Knighthoods of Christ: Essays on the history of the Crusades and the Knights Templar, presented to Malcolm Barber (pp. 51–64). Ashgate.
6. al-‘Arīnī, S. B. (1967). Al-Sharq al-Adnā fī al-‘uṣūr al-wusṭā: al-Ayyūbiyyūn (The Near East in the Middle Ages: The Ayyubids). Dār al-Nahḍa al-‘Arabiyya (Arab Renaissance House).
7. al-‘Asqalānī, I. A. (1978). Shifā’ al-qulūb fī manāqib Banī Ayyūb (The Healing of Hearts in the Virtues of the Ayyubids) (N. Rashid, Ed.). Maṭba‘at al-Irshād (Al-Irshad Press).
8. ‘Āshūr, S. A. (1996). Al-Ayyūbiyyūn wa al-Mamālīk fī Miṣr wa al-Shām (The Ayyubids and the Mamluks in Egypt and the Shām). Dār al-Nahḍa al-‘Arabiyya (Arab Renaissance House).

9. Asbridge, T. (2010). The crusades: The authoritative history of the war for the holy land. HarperCollins. al-‘Aynī, B. (2010). ‘Iqd al-jumān fī tārīkh ahl al-zamān: al-‘aṣr al-Ayyūbī (The Necklace of Pearls in the History of the People of the Time: The Ayyubid Era) (M. R. Mahmūd, Ed.). Dār al-Kutub wa al-Wathā’iq al-Qawmiyya (National Library and Archives).
10. Ambroise. (1897). L’Estoire de la Guerre Sainte: Histoire en vers de la troisième croisade (1190-1192) (The History of the Holy War: A Verse History of the Third Crusade) (G. Paris, Ed.). Imprimerie Nationale (National Printing Office).
11. Ambroise. (2003). The history of the holy war: Ambroise’s Estoire de la guerre sainte (M. Ailes & M. Barber, Trans.). Boydell Press.
12. Baybars, R. al-Dawādār al-Manṣūrī. (1993). Mukhtār al-akhbār: Tārīkh al-dawla al-Ayyūbiyya wa dawlat al-mamālīk al-baḥriyya (Selected Reports: History of the Ayyubid State and the Bahri Mamluk State) (A. S. Hamdan, Ed.). Al-Dār al-Miṣriyya al-Lubnāniyya (Egyptian-Lebanese House).
13. Bundārī, K. (2004). Sanā al-barq al-Shāmī: Mukhtaṣar barq al-Shāmī fī sīrat al-sulṭān Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn li-kātibihi ‘Imād al-Dīn al-Iṣfahānī (The Light of the al-Sham Lightning: A Summary of the al-Sham Lightning in the Biography of Sultan Saladin by Imad al-Din al-Isfahani) (R. Şeşen, Ed.). Ircica (Research Centre for Islamic History, Art and Culture).
14. Cahen, C. (2010). Haçlılar zamanında doğu ve batı (East and West in the Time of the Crusades) (M. Daş, Trans.). Yeditepe Yayınevi (Yeditepe Publishing).
15. Can, H. (2023). Abdüllatîf el-Bağdâdî'nin gözüyle Orta Çağ'da Mısır: Coğrafya, sosyo-kültürel yapı, sanat (Egypt in the Middle Ages through the eyes of Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi: Geography, socio-cultural structure, art). İlâhiyât Yayınları (Ilahiyat Publications).
16. Cassidy-Welch, M. (2014). O Damietta: War memory and crusade in thirteenth-century Egypt. Journal of Medieval History, 40(3), 346–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/03044181.2014.917835
17. Çelik, S. (2023). Beşinci Haçlı Seferi 1217-1221 (The Fifth Crusade 1217-1221). Türk Tarih Kurumu (Turkish Historical Society).
18. Dahlmanns, F. J. (1975). Al-Malik Al-ʻĀdil: Ägypten und der Vordere Orient in den Jahren 589/1193 bis 615/1218, ein Beitrag zur Ayyūbidischen Geschichte (Al-Malik Al-Adil: Egypt and the Near East in the Years 1193 to 1218, a Contribution to Ayyubid History). Universität Giessen (University of Giessen).
19. Demir, A. (2019). Ahlât Eyyûbîleri tarihi (The History of the Ayyubids of Ahlât). Nûbihar Yayınları (Nûbihar Publications).
20. Demirkent, I. (1996). Haçlılar (The Crusaders). In Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm Ansiklopedisi (Diyanet Foundation Encyclopedia of Islam) (Vol. 14, pp. 525–546). Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı (Turkish Diyanet Foundation).
21. Eddé, A. M. (2007). Ayyubids. In Encyclopaedia of Islam Three. Brill.
22. Eddé, A. M. (2011). Saladin (J. M. Todd, Trans.). Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
23. Ehrenkreutz, A. S. (1955). The place of Saladin in the naval history of the Mediterranean Sea in the middle ages. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 75(2), 100–116.
24. Falk, A. (2010). Franks and Saracens: Reality and fantasy in the crusades. Karnac Books.
25. Folda, J. (2005). Crusader art in the holy land, from the third crusade to the fall of Acre. Cambridge University Press.
26. Gibb, H. A. R. (1969). The Aiyubids. In K. M. Setton (Ed.), A history of the crusades (Vol. 2, pp. 693–714). University of Wisconsin Press.
27. Gibb, H. A. R. (1986). Al-Malik Al-’Âdil Abû Bakr Muhammad b. Ayyûb. In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 197–198). Brill.
28. Gottschalk, H. L. (1997). Al-Malik al-Kâmil. In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed., Vol. 4, pp. 520–521). Brill.
29. Graham, A. L. (2016). The German crusade of 1197–1198. Crusades, 15, 155–184.
30. Hillebrand, C. (2005). Müslümanların gözünden haçlı seferleri (The Crusades Through Arab Eyes) (N. El-Hüseyni, Trans.). Alfa Yayınları (Alfa Publications).
31. Humphreys, R. S. (1977). From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193-1260. State University of New York Press.
32. Humphreys, R. S. (1999). The origins of the Ayyubid confederation. The International Journal of Kurdish Studies, 13(1), 63–103.
33. Ibn al-‘Adīm, K. (1968). Zubdat al-ḥalab min tārīkh Ḥalab (The Cream of the Milk from the History of Aleppo) (S. al-Dahhān, Ed.). Al-Ma‘had al-Faransī bi-Dimashq (French Institute of Damascus).
34. Ibn al-‘Amīd, al-Makīn G. (n.d.). Akhbār al-Ayyūbiyyīn (Reports of the Ayyubids). Maktabat al-Thaqāfa al-Dīniyya (Religious Culture Publications).
35. Ibn al-Athīr, ‘I. A. (2003). Al-Kāmil fī al-tārīkh (The Complete History) (M. Y. al-Daqāqa, Ed.). Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyya (Scientific Books House).
36. Ibn al-Jawzī, S. A. (2013). Mir’āt al-zamān fī tawārīkh al-a‘yān (The Mirror of Time in the Histories of the Notables) (I. al-Zaybak, Ed.). Dār al-Risāla al-‘Ālamiyya (Al-Risala Publishing).
37. Ibn al-Munshī al-Ḥiṣnī, al-Ḥasan b. I. (2019). Tārīhu Hısnkeyfa (The History of Hasankeyf) (Y. Baluken, Ed.). Nûbihar Yayınları (Nûbihar Publications).
38. Ibn Kathīr, I. (2010). Al-Bidāya wa al-nihāya (The Beginning and the End) (R. ‘Abd al-Hamīd & M. H. ‘Ubayd, Eds.). Dār Ibn Kathīr (Ibn Kathir House).
39. Ibn Khallikān, A. S. (1968). Wafayāt al-a‘yān wa anbā’ abnā’ al-zamān (Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Men) (I. Abbas, Ed.). Dār Ṣādir (Dar Sader Publishing).
40. Ibn Shaddād, B. Y. (1375). Al-Nawādir al-sulṭāniyya wa al-maḥāsin al-Yūsufiyya (The Sultanic Anecdotes and the Virtuesof Yusuf). Maktabat al-Khānjī (Al-Khanji Publications).
41. Ibn Wāṣil, J. (1960-2004). Mufarrij al-kurūb fī akhbār Banī Ayyūb (The Dispeller of Sorrows in the Reports of the Ayyubids) (J. al-Shayyāl, H. M. Rabī‘, & O. A. Tadmurī, Eds.; Vols. 3-5). Multiple publishers.
42. al-Iṣfahānī, ‘I. (2004). Al-Fatḥ al-qussī fī al-fatḥ al-Qudsī (The Qussian Eloquence in the Conquest of Jerusalem). Dār al-Manār (Al-Manar House).
43. Karakaş, Ş. (2016). V. Haçlı Seferi ve Haçlıların Dimyat'ı zaptı (The Fifth Crusade and the Capture of Damietta by the Crusaders). Erzurum Teknik Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi (Erzurum Technical University Journal of Social Sciences Institute), 1(2), 7–26.
44. Karakaş, Ş. (2023a). 1197-1198 Alman Haçlı Seferi ve Eyyûbîlerin mücadelesi (The German Crusade of 1197-1198 and the Struggle of the Ayyubids). Selçuklu Araştırmaları Dergisi (Journal of Seljuk Studies), 18, 93–114. https://doi.org/10.23897/usad.1319099
45. Karakaş, Ş. (2023b). Selahaddîn Eyyubi sonrası Eyyubi Devleti-Haçlı münasebetleri (1193-1250) (Ayyubid State-Crusader Relations after Saladin [1193-1250]) (Doctoral dissertation). Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli Üniversitesi (Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli University).
46. Karakuş, N. (2021). Kudüs’te ilk Cuma: 2 Ekim 1187 (The First Friday in Jerusalem: 2 October 1187). Marifetname, 8(1), 41–63. https://doi.org/10.47425/marifetname.878583
47. Karakuş, N. (2022). Selâhaddîn-i Eyyûbî’nin amirali: Hüsameddin Lü’lü (The Admiral of Saladin: Husam al-Din Lü’lu). UMDE Dini Tetkikler Dergisi (UMDE Journal of Religious Studies), 5(1), 62–80. https://doi.org/10.54122/umde.1117252
48. Karakuş, N. (2023). Haçlı seferlerinde papalık ve Avrupa’da Müslümanlara karşı yapılan ambargo çağrıları (The Papacy in the Crusades and calls for embargoes against Muslims in Europe). Yakın Doğu Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi (Near East University Faculty of Theology Journal), 9(1), 69–83. https://doi.org/10.32955/neu.ilaf.2023.9.1.05
49. Kaya, Ö. (2006). Bir Eyyubi melikinin portresi: Melik Efdal Nureddin Ali b. Selahaddin Eyyubi (The Portrait of an Ayyubid Malik: Malik al-Afdal Nur al-Din Ali b. Salah al-Dîn). Tarih İncelemeleri Dergisi (Journal of Historical Studies), 21(2), 139–176.
50. Kennedy, H. (1994). Crusader castles. Cambridge University Press.
51. Kuşçu, A. D. (2013). Eyyûbî devlet teşkilâtı (Ayyubid State Organization). Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları (Turkish Historical Society Publications).
52. Lyons, M. C., & Jackson, D. E. P. (2006). Selahaddin (Saladin) (Z. Saran, Trans.). Pınar Yayınları (Pınar Publications). al-Maqrīzī, T. A. (1997). Al-Sulūk li-ma‘rifat duwal al-mulūk (The Road to Knowledge of the Dynasties of Kings) (M. A. Aṭā, Ed.). Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyya (Scientific Books House).
53. Oflaz, A. (2016). Eyyûbî ailesinin ilk dönem tarihleri (The Early History of the Ayyubid Family). Iğdır Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi (Iğdır University Faculty of Theology Journal), 7, 37–60.
54. Oflaz, A. (2019). Kuruluş ve yükseliş döneminde Eyyûbîler (Melik Âdil dönemi) (Ayyubids in the Founding and Rising Period [The Period of Malik al-Adil]). Siyer Yayınları (Siyer Publications).
55. Raphael, K. (2010). Muslim fortresses in the Levant: Between crusaders and Mongols. Routledge.
56. Şeşen, R. (2000). Salâhaddı̂n Eyyûbı̂ ve devri (Saladin and His Era). İsar (Istanbul Foundation for Research and Education).
57. Şeşen, R. (2007). Eyyûbîler (1169-1260) (The Ayyubids [1169-1260]). İsam (Center for Islamic Studies).