Yeni Araştırmalar Işığında Sardis'te Lidya Sarayları

Yıl 2023, Sayı: 86, 11 - 41, 01.07.2023

Nicholas Cahill

Öz

Lidya krallarının, özellikle de Kral Kroisos’un sarayı geçmişte çok ünlüydü; dolayısıyla yeri ziyaretçiler ve arkeologlar tarafından yüzyıllar boyunca araştırılmıştır. Lidya Dönemi Sardisi’nin merkezindeki güncel kazılar, Akropol ve aşağı şehir arasında orta kademeli bir bölgeyi saray kompleksinin oturduğu mevki olarak tanımlamamızı sağlamıştır. Bu mevkinin sarp yerbetimi iki bin yılı aşkın süre boyunca anıtsal teras yapılarıyla düzenlenmiş ve genişletilmiştir. Terasların üzerindeki binalar sistemli olarak yerlerinden sökülüp talan edilmiş durumda olsalar bile, geriye kalan seçkin mimari ve küçük buluntular bize bu yapılar hakkında fikir vermektedir. Yeni buluntular Sardis’in Persler tarafından yağmalandığı MÖ 547 yılına aittir ve aralarında insan kalıntıları ile gümüş Lidya sikkelerinden oluşan bir define de bulunmaktadır. İkinci bir saray alanı ise Akropolde tanımlanmıştır. Bu alanın aşağı saraya bir tünelle bağlanmış olması muhtemeldir. Aşağı saray bölgesi, Erken Demir Çağ ve Tunç Çağ yapılarını da içeren uzun soluklu anıtsal iskan tarihini açığa çıkarmıştır, ancak bu erken tabakalar aşağı şehirde henüz keşfedilmeyi beklemektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Lydia, Sardis, Palace, Early Iron Age

The Lydian Palaces at Sardis in the Light of New Research

Öz

The palace of the Lydian kings, and in particular the palace of Croesus, was famous in antiquity, and has been sought by visitors and archaeologists for centuries. Recent excavation in the center of Lydian Sardis allows us to identify a region intermediate between the Acropolis and the lower city as the site of one palatial complex. The steep topography was regularized and expanded through monumental terraces over a period of more than two millennia. Elite architecture and finds give us an impression of the buildings on these terraces in the Lydian period, although systematic salvage and looting have removed most structures. Recent finds include the remains of the Persian sack of Sardis in 547, including human remains and a hoard of Lydian silver coins. A second palatial complex was identified on the Acropolis, perhaps linked to the lower palace through a tunnel. The area of the lower palace has produced a long sequence of monumental occupation, including Early Iron Age and Bronze Age buildings, the earliest occupation remains yet discovered at the city.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Lydia, Sardis, Palace, Early Iron Age

Kaynakça

• Berlin, A. (2019). “The Archaeology of a Changing City.” In Spear-Won Land: Sardis, from the King’s Peace to the Peace of Apamea, edited by A. Berlin, and P. Kosmin, 50-67. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
• Briant, P. (1993). “Alexandre à Sardes.” In Alexander the Great: Reality and Myth, edited by J. Carlsen, 13-27. Analecta Romana Instituti Danici. Supplementum, 20. Briant. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
• Cahill, N.D. (2000). “Lydian Houses, Domestic Assemblages, and Household Size.” In Across the Anatolian Plateau: Readings in the Archaeology of Ancient Turkey, edited by D.C. Hopkins, 173-185. AASOR 57, 57. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research.
• Cahill, N.D., ed. (2010a). Lidyalılar ve dünyaları / The Lydians and Their World. Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları.
• ———. (2010b). “The Persian Destruction of Sardis / Sardeis’teki Pers Tahribi.” In Lidyalılar ve dünyaları / The Lydians and Their World, edited by N.D. Cahill, 339-361. Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları.
• ———. (2012). Sardis, 2010. Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı 33.4.
• ———. (2013). “Sardis, 2011.” Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı 34.2: 147-160.
• ———. (2014). “Sardis, 2012.” Kazı Sonucları Toplantısı 35.3: 119-135.
• ———. (2015). “Sardis, 2013.” Kazı Sonucları Toplantısı 36:2: 413-430.
• ———. (2019). “Inside Out: Sardis in the Achaemenid and Lysimachean Periods.” In Spear-Won Land: Sardis, from the King’s Peace to the Peace of Apamea, edited by A. Berlin, and P. Kosmin, 11-36. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
• ———. (Forthcoming). “Cooking, Eating, and Drinking in Lydian: Cultural Identity in Everyday Utensils.” In Between Sardis and Gordion: Aspects of Culture and Society in pre-Hellenistic Lydia and Phrygia, edited by R. Oreshko, and N.D. Cahill, Sardis Studies, 1. Harvard University Press and the Center for Hellenic Studies.
• Cahill, N.D., and C.H. Greenewalt, jr. (2016). “The Sanctuary of Artemis at Sardis: Preliminary Report, 2002–2012.” American Journal of Archaeology 120: 473-509.
• Cahill, N.D., J. Hari, B. Önay, and E. Dokumacı. (2020). “Depletion-Gilding of Lydian Electrum Coins and the Sources of Lydian Gold.” In White Gold: Studies in Early Electrum Coinage, edited by P. Van Alfen, and U. Wartenberg, 291-336. Cahill. New York and Jerusalem: The American Numismatic Society and The Israel Museum.
• Cahill, N.D., and J.H. Kroll. (2005). “New Archaic Coin Finds at Sardis.” American Journal of Archaeology 109: 589-617.
• Draycott, C.M., G. Summers, and C. Brixhe. (2008). Kerkenes Special Studies 1. Sculpture and Inscriptions from the Monumental Entrance to the Palatial Complex at Kerkenes Dağ, Turkey. Oriental Institute Publications 135. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
• Dusinberre, E.R.M. (2017). “Administration, Interaction, and Identity in Lydia before the Persian Empire: A New Seal from Sardis.” BASOR 378: 95-111.
• Eren, G. (2022). “Make Place for Thy Kings: Monumental Urban Terraces of Iron Age Sardis, Lydia.” PhD Dissertation, Boston University.
• ———. (Forthcoming). “Building an Elite Cultural Identity: Monumental Architecture in Early Lydian Sardis.” In Between Sardis and Gordion: Aspects of Culture and Society in pre-Hellenistic Lydia and Phrygia, edited by R. Oreshko, and N.D. Cahill, Sardis Studies, 1. Harvard University Press and the Center for Hellenic Studies.
• Greenewalt, C.H., jr. (1984). “Sardis, 1983.” Anatolian Studies 34: 233-234.
• ———. (1992). “When a Mighty Empire Was Destroyed. The Common Man at the Fall of Sardis, ca. 546 B.C.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 136: 247-271.
• ———. (1997). “Arms and Weapons at Sardis in the Mid-Sixth Century B.C. / M.Ö. VI. Yüzyıl Ortasında Sardis’de Askeri Techizat ve Silahlar.” Arkeoloji ve Sanat 79: 2-27.
• Greenewalt, C.H., jr., N.D. Cahill, P.T. Stinson, and F.K. Yegül. (2003). The City of Sardis: Approaches in Graphic Recording. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Art Museums.
• Greenewalt, C.H., jr., C. Ratté, and M.L. Rautman. (1993). “The Sardis Campaigns of 1988 and 1989.” AASOR 51: 1-43.
• ———. (1994). “The Sardis Campaigns of 1990 and 1991.” AASOR 52: 1-36.
• Greenewalt, C.H., jr., M.L. Rautman, and N.D. Cahill. (1987). “The Sardis Campaign of 1985.” BASOR Supplement 25: 55-92.
• Greenewalt, C.H., jr., D.G. Sullivan, C. Ratté, and T.N. Howe. (1985). “The Sardis Campaigns of 1981 and 1982.” BASOR Supplement 23: 53-92.
• Hanfmann, G.M.A. (1963). “The Fifth Campaign at Sardis (1962).” BASOR 170: 1-65.
• ———. (1965). “The Seventh Campaign at Sardis (1964).” BASOR 177: 2-37.
• ———. (1977). “On the Palace of Croesus.” In Festschrift für Frank Brommer, edited by U. Höckmann, and A. Krug, 145-154. Hanfmann. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern.
• ———. (1980). “On Lydian Sardis.” In From Athens to Gordion: The Papers of a Memorial Symposium for Rodney S. Young, edited by K. DeVries, 99-107. Philadelphia: University Museum, University of Pennsylvania.
• Hanfmann, G.M.A., and W.E. Mierse. (1983). Sardis from Prehistoric to Roman Times: Results of the Archaeological Exploration of Sardis, 1958–1975. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
• Högemann, P., and N. Oettinger. (2018). Lydien: Ein altanatolischer Staat zwischen Griechenland und dem Vorderen Orient. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
• Kosmin, P. (2019). “Remaking a Capital: Sardis in the Long Third Century.” In Spear-Won Land: Sardis, from the King’s Peace to the Peace of Apamea, edited by A. Berlin and P. Kosmin, 75-90. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
• Matzke, M. (2000). “Die frühe Münzprägung von Teos in Ionien.” JNG 50: 21-53.
• Mellink, M.J. (1992). “The Native Kingdoms of Anatolia.” In The Cambridge Ancient HIstory III.2. The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries B.C, edited by J. Boardman, I.E.S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N.G.K. Hammond, 619-665. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Nimchuk, C. (2000). “The Lion-and-Bull Coinage of Croesus.” The Journal of the Classical & Medieval Numismatic Society 1.1: 5-44.
• Özdemir, H.F. (2007). “Daskyleion’da Taş Kaplar.” OLBA 17: 13-58.
• Özgen, I., J. Öztürk, M.J. Mellink, and C.H. Greenewalt, jr. (1996). The Lydian Treasure: Heritage Recovered. Ankara: Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture, General Directorate of Monuments and Museums.
• Payne, A., and J. Wintjes. (2016). Lords of Asia Minor: An Introduction to the Lydians. Philippika 93. Weisbaden: Harassowitz.
• Pedley, J.G. (1972). Ancient Literary Sources on Sardis. Sardis Monograph 2. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
• Petzl, G. (2019). Sardis: Greek and Latin Inscriptions, Part II: Finds from 1958 To 2017. Sardis Monograph 14. Istanbul: Ege Yayınları.
• Ramage, A., and P. Craddock. (2000). King Croesus’ Gold: Excavations at Sardis and the History of Gold Refining. Sardis Monograph 11. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press and British Museum Press.
• Ramage, A., N.H. Ramage, and R.G. Gürtekin-Demir. (2021). Ordinary Lydians at Home: The Lydian Trenches of the House of Bronzes and Pactolus Cliff at Sardis. Sardis Report 8. Cambridge, Mass.: Archaeological Exploration of Sardis.
• Ratté, C. (2011). Lydian Architecture: Ashlar Masonry Structures at Sardis. Sardis Report 5. Cambridge, Mass.: Archaeological Exploration of Sardis.
• Rojas, F. (2019). The Pasts of Roman Anatolia: Interpreters, Traces, Horizons. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
• Roosevelt, C.H. et al. (2018). “Exploring Space, Economy, and Interregional Interaction at a Second-Millennium B.C.E. Citadel in Central Western Anatolia: 2014–2017 Research at Kaymakçı.” American Journal of Archaeology 122: 645-688.
• Roosevelt, C.H., and C. Luke. (2017). “The Story of a Forgotten Kingdom? Survey Archaeology and the Historical Geography of Central Western Anatolia in the Second Millennium BC.” European Journal of Archaeology 20: 120-147.
• Schmidt, E.F. (1957). Persepolis II: Contents of the Treasury and Other Discoveries. Oriental Institute Publications 69. Chicago: Oriental Institute Press.
• Shear, T.L. (1922). “Sixth Preliminary Report on the American Excavations at Sardes in Asia Minor.” American Journal of Archaeology 26: 389-409.
• Simpson, S.J. (2005). “The Royal Table.” In The World of Achaemenid Persia: History, Art and Society in Iran and the Ancient Near East, edited by J. Curtis, 104-111. London: I.B. Tauris.
• Summers, G. (2021). Kerkenes Final Reports 1. Excavations at the Cappadocia Gate. Oriental Institute Publications 145. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
• ———. (Forthcoming). Kerkenes Final Reports 2. Excavations at the Palatial Complex. Oriental Institute Publications Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
• Thonemann, P. (2020). “A New ‘Lydian History’ from Sardis.” ZPE 213: 78-84.
• van der Spek, R.J. (2021). “The Nabonidus Chronicle on the Ninth Year of Nabonidus (547-6 BC). Babylonia and Lydia in Context.” In Achemenet. Vingt ans après. Études offertes à Pierre Briant à l’occasion des vingt ans du Programme Achemenet, edited by D. Agut-Labordère et al., 415-428. Leuven: Peeters.
• Waldbaum, J.C. (1983). Metalwork from Sardis: The Finds through 1974. Sardis Monograph 8. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
• Worthington, I., ed. (2007-). Jacoby Online. Brill’s New Jacoby. Leiden: Brill.
• Yegül, F.K. (1986). The Bath-Gymnasium Complex at Sardis. Sardis Report 3. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.