The Nation-Building Policies of the Members of the Turkic States Organization: A Case of Kazakhstan

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 24 Sayı: 3, 1152 - 1171, 30.11.2024

Sharifa Giritlioglu

https://doi.org/10.11616/asbi.1516668

Öz

This research seeks to understand the country-wide programs of nation-building by member states of Turkic States Organization (TSO) with dedicated focus on Kazakhstan. The study aims to provide answers as to how TSO members conduct their nation-building process and also looks into development of national identity, mostly in respect to Kazakhstan. A qualitative approach was employed in this research that investigated historical, socio-cultural and ethno-political aspects behind the process of Kazakhstan’s nation-building. Statistical data were taken from various sources like governmental reports, declarations, official records, scholarly publications and state news agencies. From the analysis, it is evident that every TSO member has a unique approach towards developing their national identity based on diverse historical, cultural and geographical factors. In relation to Kazakhstan there are certain key issues such as language use, identity and ethnic policy in addition other issues which emerge as crucial aspects in building a nation for example identity.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Organization of Turkic States, Kazakhstan, Nation-building, National Identity, Language Policy.

TÜRK DEVLETLERİ TEŞKİLATI ÜYELERİNİN ULUS İNŞA POLİTİKALARI: KAZAKİSTAN ÖRNEĞİ

Öz

Bu çalışma, Kazakistan örneğinde, Türk Devletleri Teşkilatı’na (TDT) üye devletlerin ulus inşa etme politikalarını konu almaktadır. Çalışma kapsamında TDT üyelerinin ulus inşa etme politikalarının nasıl uygulandığı sorusuna cevap aranırken, özellikle Kazakistan örneğinde ulusal kimlik gelişimini çevreleyen konulara ilişkin araştırma yapılmıştır. Araştırmada yöntem olarak, Kazakistan’ın ulus inşası sürecinin tarihi, sosyo-kültürel ve ento-politik yönlerini incelemek için nitel metot kullanılmakta olup, resmi hükümet raporları, açıklamalar, tarihi kayıtlar, akademik yayınlar ve resmi haber ajansları dahil olmak üzere farklı kaynaklardan veri toplanmış ve analiz edilmiştir. Araştırmanın bulgularına göre her TDT üyesi ülke, kendi özgün tarihlerine, kültürlerine ve coğrafyasına uygun şekilde ulusal kimliklerini geliştirmek için farklı stratejiler benimsemiştir ve Kazakistan örneğinde ulus inşa politikalarında kimlik, dil, etnik politika gibi ortak temalar bulunmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Türk Devletleri Teşkilatı, Kazakistan, Ulus İnşası, Ulusal Kimlik, Dil Politikası

Kaynakça

• ADILET.KZ (2015) Ob utverzhdenii Koncepcii ukreplenija i razvitija kazahstanskoj identichnosti i edinstva [Kazakistan kimliğinin ve birliğinin güçlendirilmesi ve geliştirilmesi Konseptinin onaylanması üzerine], URL: https://adilet.zan.kz/rus/docs/U1500000147, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• ADILET.ZAN.KZ (1993) Konstitutsia Respubliki Kazahstan [Kazakistan Cumhuriyeti’nin Anayasası] URL: https://adilet.zan.kz/rus/docs/K930001000_, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• ADILET.ZAN.KZ (1995) KonstitutsiaRespublikiKazahstan [Kazakistan Cumhuriyeti’nin Anayasası] URL:https://adilet.zan.kz/rus/docs/K950001000_, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• ADILET.ZAN.KZ (1997) Kazahstan – 2030 Protsvetanie, bezopasnost’ i uluchshenie blagosostoyaniya vseh kazahstantsev [Kazakistan - 2030 Tüm Kazakistanlıların refahı, güvenliği ve refahının artması], URL: https://adilet.zan.kz/rus/docs/K970002030_/links, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• Aitymbetov, Nurken. Toktarov, Ermek & Ormakhanova, Yenlik (2015) ‘Nation-Building in Kazakhstan: Kazakh and Kazakhstani Identities Controversy’. Bilig Summer 2015(74):1–20.
• Akçali, Pinar (2003) ‘III. Nation-State Building in Central Asia: A Lost Case?’ Perspectives on Global Development and Technology 2(3):409–29. doi: 10.1163/156915003322986334.
• Akiner, Shirin (1995) “The Struggle for Identity.” In After Empire: The Emerging Geopolitics of Central Asia, edited by J. Snyder, 3–36. Washington, DC: National Defense University Press.
• AKORDA.KZ (2015) Vystuplenie Gosudarstvennogo sekretarja Respubliki Kazahstan G.Abdykalikovoj na konferencii «Identichnost' i edinstvo naroda Kazahstana v kontekste 100 konkretnyh shagov» [Kazakistan Cumhuriyeti Dışişleri Bakanı G. Abdykalikova'nın “100 Somut Adım Bağlamında Kazakistan Halkının Kimliği ve Birliği” konferansında yaptığı konuşma], URL: https://www.akorda.kz/ru/secretary_of_state /secretary_of_state_speeches/vystuplenie-gosudarstvennogo-sekretarya-respubliki-kazahstan- gabdykalikovoi-na-konferencii-identichnost-i- edinstvo-naroda-kazahstana-v-konte, (Erişim Tarihi: 14.06.2024).
• AKORDA.KZ (2019, September 02) Konstruktivniy Obshhestvennyj Dilog–Osnova Stabil’nosti i Procvetanıja Kazahstana [Yapıcı Kamu Diyalogu Kazakistan'ın İstikrar ve Refahının Temelidir] Послание Главы государства Касым-Жомарта Токаева народу Казахстана URL: https://www.akorda.kz/ru/addresses /addresses_of_president/poslanie-glavy-gosudarstva-kasym-zhomarta-tokaeva-narodu- kazahstana, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• AKORDA.KZ (2021), Vystuplenie Glavy gosudarstva K.K.Tokaevana XXXII sessi Assamblei naroda Kazahstana «Spravedlivyj Kazahstan: edinstvo, stabil'nost', razvitie» [Kazakistan Halk Meclisi'nin XXXII oturumunda Devlet Başkanı K.K.Tokayev'in Konuşması "Adil Kazakistan: birlik, istikrar, kalkınma"] URL: https://akorda.kz/ru/glava-gosudarstva-provel-rasshirennoe-zasedanie-soveta-assamblei-naroda- kazahstana-2194733, (Erişim Tarihi: 14.06.2024).
• Alesina, A. F., & Reich, B. (2015). Nation building. Working paper, Department of Economics, Harvard University.
• Anderson В. (2006) “Imagined Communities“. London: Verso, 256 р.
• ASSEMBLY.KZ (2024) Assambleja Naroda Kazahstana [Kazakistan Halkı Meclisi], URL: https://assembly.kz /ru/ank/deyatelnost-assamblei-naroda-kazakhstana, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• Astanatimes.com (2024) Pan-Turkism: Turkic Vector in Kazakhstan’s Foreign Policy, URL: https://astanatimes.com/2024/02/pan-turkism-turkic-vector-in-kazakhstans-foreign-policy/, (Erişim Tarihi: 16.06.2024).
• Aydingün, I., & Aydıngün, A. (2014). Nation-State Building in Kyrgyzstan and Transition to the Parliamentary System. Parliamentary Affairs, 67, 391-414.
• Baranov, N. A., & Kok, Sevgi (2021). ‘The Difficult Path to a Civil Nation: the Experience of Nation-Building in Modern Kazakhstan’. Post-Soviet Issues 8(1):136–51. doi: 10.24975/2313-8920-2021-8-1-136-151.
• Berger, Mark T. (2006) ‘From Nation-Building to State-Building: The Geopolitics of Development, the Nation-State System and the Changing Global Order’. Third World Quarterly 27(1):5–25. doi: 10.1080/01436590500368719.
• Bremmer, Ian (1994) ‘Nazarbaev and the North: State‐building and Ethnic Relations in Kazakhstan’. Ethnic and Racial Studies 17(4):619–35. doi: 10.1080/01419870.1994.9993843.
• Broers, L., & Mahmudlu, C. (2022). Civic Dominion: Nation-Building in Post-Soviet Azerbaijan over 25 Years of Independence. Nationalities Papers, 51, 47 - 63.
• Brubaker, R. (1996). Nationalism reframed: Nationhood and the national question in the new Europe. Cambridge University Press.
• Brubaker, Rogers (1996) ‘Nationalizing States in the Old “New Europe” – and the New’. Ethnic and Racial Studies 19(2):411–37. doi: 10.1080/01419870.1996.9993918.
• Burkhanov, Aziz (2017) ‘Kazakhstan’s National Identity- Building Policy: Soviet Legacy, State Efforts, and Societal Reactions’. Cornell International Law Journal 50:1–14. doi: 10.31228/osf.io/2hfr6.
• Calhoun, C. (1997) Nationalism, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
• Cohen, A. (2008). Kazakhstan:Theroadtoindependence /energypolicyandthebirth of a Nation. Washington, D.C.: Central Asia-CaucasusInstitute& Silk Road Studies Program.
• Cohen, R.A., & Lev, T.D. (2021). Azerbaijan’s state building power as a reflection of Israel–Iran hostility. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 50, 107 - 122.
• Cummings, Sally N. (2003) ‘Eurasian Bridge or Murky Waters between East and West? Ideas, Identity and Output in Kazakhstan’s Foreign Policy’. Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics 19(3):139–55. doi: 10.1080/13523270300660021.
• Cummings, Sally N (2006) ‘Legitimation and Identification in Kazakhstan’. Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 12(2):177–204. doi: 10.1080/13537110600734547.
• Çetin, S. (2014). Kazakistan ulus inşa sürecinde Türk dilli toplulukların karşılaştırmalı olarak diaspora ilişkileri. Yayınlanmamış Uzmanlık Tezi, T.C. Başbakanlık Yurtdışı Türkler ve Akraba Topluluklar Başkanlığı, Ankara, Türkiye.
• Daminov, I. (2020). Pereocenka klassifikacii modeli jetnicheskogo upravlenija v Kazahstane: sravnitel'nyj podhod [Kazakistan'daki etnik yönetim modelinin sınıflandırmasının yeniden değerlendirilmesi: karşılaştırmalı bir yaklaşım]. Eurasian Research Journal, Vol.11, No.2
• Daminov, I. (2021). Jetnicheskaja politika Kazahstana 1991-2021: chtonuzhnomenjat'? [Kazakistan'ın etnik politikası 1991-2021: neyin değiştirilmesi gerekiyor?]CentralAsianBureauforAnalyticalReporting, URL: https://cabar.asia/ru/etnicheskaya-politika-kazahstana-1991-2021-chto-nuzhno-menyat?pdf=49847, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• Ergun, A. (2021). Citizenship, National Identity, and Nation-Building in Azerbaijan: Between the Legacy of the Past and the Spirit of Independence. Nationalities Papers, 50, 813 - 830.
• Esenova, Saulesh (2002) ‘Soviet Nationality, Identity, and Ethnicity in Central Asia: Historic Narratives and Kazakh Ethnic Identity’. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 22(1):11–38. doi: 10.1080/13602000220124818.
• GOV.KZ (2023, August 24) O podgotovke 7-mi tomnika Istorii Kazahstana [7 Ciltlik Kazakistan Tarihinin Hazırlanması Üzerine URL: https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/sci/press/news/details/607665?lang=ru, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• GOV.KZ(a) (2024, January 24) Porjadka 9 tys. kazahstancevpereselilis' s jugana sever v 2023 godu [2023'te yaklaşık 9 bin Kazakistanlı güneyden kuzeye göç etti] URL: https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/enbek/press/ news/details/691277?lang=ru, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• GOV.KZ(b) (2024, January 15) Bolee 21,3 tys. jetnicheskihkazahovpoluchilistatuskandasa v 2023 godu [2023'te 21,3 binden fazla etnik Kazak Kandas statüsü aldı] URL: https://www.gov.kz/memleket/entities/enbek/ press/news/details/685950?lang=ru, (Erişim Tarihi: 16.06.2024).
• Huskey, E. (2003). National identity from scratch: Defining Kyrgyzstan's role in world affairs. Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 19, 111 - 138.
• Ilkhamov, Alisher (2013) ‘Mustaqillik Ideology Tested: Nation-State Building in Uzbekistan and Related Security Challenges’. Pp. 109–23 in OSCE Yearbook 2012, edited by Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy at the University of Hamburg / IFSH. Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG.
• Imran, S. (2018). Nation Branding Endeavours of Azerbaijan: Reshaping National Image. Strategic Studies.
• Isaacs, Rico, & Polese, Abel (2015) ‘Between “Imagined” and “Real” Nation-Building: Identities and Nationhood in Post-Soviet Central Asia’. Nationalities Papers 43(3):371–82. doi: 10.1080/00905992.2015.1029044.
• İnaç, H., & Ünal, F. (2013). The construction of national identity in modern times: Theoretical perspective. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 3(11), 223-232.
• Kabaziev, Manarbek Sh. (2022) ‘Formirovanie Natsionalnoj Identichnosti Respubliki Kazahstan: Osobennosti i Protivorechiya [Formation of National Identity of The Republic of Kazakhstan: Features and Contradictions]’. Современная Европа (7):221–31. doi: 10.31857/S020170832207018X.
• Kadyrzhanov, Rustem (2023) “Territory as Factor of Nation-Building in New Kazakhstan”. Horizons: Journal of International Relations and Sustainable Development Spring(23):244-56. doi: https://www.jstor.org /stable/48735810.
• Kalashnikova, N. P., & Baitureyeva, K. A. (2023) “Nation-Building in Kazakhstan: Ethno-Confessional Contexts”. EURASIAN INTEGRATION: economics, law, politics 17(3):159-67. doi: 10.22394/2073-2929-2023-03-159-167.
• Kazakistan Cumhuriyeti Anayasası (1995) URL: https://adilet.zan.kz/rus/docs/K950001000_ , (Erişim tarihi: 16.05.2024)
• Kesici, O. (2011). The dilemma in the nation-building process: The Kazakh or Kazakhstani nation. jemie, 10, 31.
• KREMLIN.RU (2022, February 24), ObrashheniePrezidentaRossijskojFederacii [Rusya Federasyonu Başkanı'nın konuşması] URL: http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/67843
• Kurzman, Charles (1999) “Uzbekistan: The Invention of Tradition.” Critique 15: 77–98.
• Laruelle, M. (2012). The paradigm of nationalism in Kyrgyzstan. Evolving narrative, the sovereignty issue, and political agenda. Communist and Post-communist Studies, 45, 39-49.
• Laruelle, M. (2014). The three discursive paradigms of state identity in Kazakhstan. Nationalism and identity construction in Central Asia: Dimensions, dynamics, and directions, 1-20.
• Lee, Chaimun. 2004. ‘Languages and Ethnic Politics in Central Asia: The Case of Kazakhstan’. Journal of Intrnational and Area Studies 11(1):101–16.
• LEGALACTS.EGOV.KZ (2023) Ob utverzhdenii Koncepcii razvitija jazykovoj politiki v Respublike Kazahstan na 2023 – 2029 gody [Kazakistan Cumhuriyeti'nde 2023-2029 Dil Politikasının Geliştirilmesi Konsepti'nin onaylanması üzerine], Электронное правительство , Открытое правительство, Правительство Республики Казахстан, URL: https://legalacts.egov.kz/npa/view?id=14488704, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• McCrone, D. (1998) The sociology of nationalism, London: Routledge.
• Melich, J., & Adibayeva, A. (2013). Nation-building and cultural policy in Kazakhstan. European Scientific Journal.
• mfa.gv.tr (2024) rganization of Turkic States (OTS), Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic f Türkiye URL: https://www.mfa.gov.tr/turk-konseyi-en.en.mfa
• Nadirova, Gulnar (2024) The Concept of the NAtional Vision and its Priorities in Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. Eurasian Research Institute Bulletin, Akhmet Yassawi International Kazakh-Turkish University, URL: https://www.eurasian-research.org/publication/the-concept-of-the-national-vision-and-its- priorities-in-uzbekistan-and-kazakhstan/ Accessed on 15.05.2024
• NTV (2021, January 29). Kazakistan’da Latin harflerine uyarlanan 31 harflik yeni alfabe tanıtıldı. https://www.ntv.com.tr/dunya/kazakistanda-latin-harflerine-uyarlanan-31-harflik-yeni-alfabe- tanitildi,UTKTlNgheUedDceJtA7cOw (Erişim Tarihi: 19.03.2024).
• Ó Beacháin, Donnacha, & Kevlihan, Rob. 2013. ‘Threading a Needle: K Azakhstan between Civic and Ethno‐ nationalist State‐building’. Nations and Nationalism 19(2):337–56. doi: 10.1111/nana.12022.
• Olcott, Martha Brill. 1983. Intellectuals and the Development of Nationalism in Kazakhstan. 626–7. National Council for Soviet and East European Research.
• Olcott, Martha Brill. 2002. Kazakhstan: Unfulfilled Promise. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
• ORTCOM.KZ (2024, February 16) Bolee 1 tys. Jetnicheskih kazahov poluchili status kandasa s nachala 2024 goda [2024 yılı başından bu yana binden fazla etnik Kazak Kandas statüsü aldı] Служба Центральных Коммуникаций при Президенте Республики Казахстан, URL: https://ortcom.kz/ru/novosti/1708056095, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• Roman, A. (2020). Identity-Building in Kazakhstan. Studia Universitatis Babes-Bolyai-Studia Europaea, 65(2), 327-358.
• Roy, Olivier (2000) The New Central Asia: The Creation of Nations. London: I. B. Tauris. Sadvokassova, Aigul, & Amirov, Adilet (2023) “The Process of Nation-Building in Kazakhstan: Historical Foundations, Topical Issuea and Immportant Work Vectors”. Theory and Practice 6-20. doi: 10.61572/2958-1427-2023-1-6-20.
• Schmidt, M.B. (2007). Die Erfindung Kirgistans und der unvollendete Prozess der Nationenbildung. Political Science. History.
• Smith A.D. (1991) “National Identitу“. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 86 p.
• Smith, A. D. (1998) Nationalism and modernism: a critical survey of recent theories of nations and nationalism, London: Routledge.
• Smith, A. D. (1986) ‘State-Making and Nation-Building’. ss. 228–263 in States in history. Vol. 15.
• Sputnik (2017, October 27) Kazakistan cumhurbaşkanıNursultan Nazarbayev, latin harflerinin kullanıldığı yeni Kazak alfabesini onayladı. https://tr.sputniknews.com/asya/201710271030775280-kazakistan-latin- alfabesi/ (Erişim Tarihi: 11.02.2024).
• STAT.GOV.KZ (2023). Kazakstan Respublikasy, 2021 zhylgy Kazakstan Respublikasy halkynyn ulttyk sanagynyn korytyndylary [2021'de Kazakistan Cumhuriyeti ulusal nüfus sayımı sonuçları], URL: https://stat.gov.kz/ru/national/2021/, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• Sutherland, Claire. (2005) ‘Nation-Building through Discourse Theory’. Nations and Nationalism 11(2):185–202. doi: 10.1111/j.1354-5078.2005.00199.x.
• TENGRINEWS.KZ (a) (2023, February 13) Okolo 3 tysjach ulic i naselennyh punktov pereimenujut v Kazahstane [Kazakistan'da 3 bine yakın cadde ve yerleşim yerinin adı değiştirilecek] URL: https://tengrinews.kz/kazakhstan_news/okolo-3-tyisyach-ulits-naselennyih-punktov-pereimenuyut- 491040/, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• Terzyan, Aram (2020) “New President, Old Problems: The Challenges of Post-Nazarbayev State-Building in Kazakhstan”. doi: 10.47669/PSPRP-5-2020.
• TİKA (1992) Hakkımızda URL: https://tika.gov.tr/kurumumuz/hakkimizda/, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• Til.gov.uz (2024) “O‘zbekiston Respublikasining “Lotin yozuviga asoslangan o‘zbek alifbosini joriy etish to‘g‘risida”gi Qonuniga o‘zgartirishlar kiritish haqida”gi qonun loyihasi yuzasidan. O’zbekiston Respublikasi Vazirlar Mahkamasi. URL: http://til.gov.uz/uz/news-and-announcements/news/230, (Erişim Tarihi: 15.05.2024).
• Tolz, V. (1998). Forging the nation: National identity and nation building in post‐communist Russia. Europe-Asia Studies, 50(6), 993-1022.
• trtworld.com (2022) Turkic Council reforms into Organization of Turkic States, URL: https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkic-council-reforms-into-organization-of-turkic-states-51608, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• Turkic Academy (2009) Türk Akademisi Hakkında. URL: https://turkicacademy.org/tu, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• turkicstates.org (a) (2024) Organizason tarihçesi, URL: https://www.turkicstates.org/tr/organizasyon- tarihcesi, (Erişim Tarihi: 19.06.2024).
• turkicstates.org (b) (2024) TDT Üye Devletleri İstanbul’da Türk Yatırım Fonunun Kuruluş Çalışmaları Kapsamında Bir Çalışma Toplantısı Düzenledi. URL: https://turkicstates.org/tr/haberler/tdt-uye- devletleri-istanbulda-turk-yatirim-fonunun-kurulus-calismalari-kapsaminda-bir-calisma-toplantisi- duzenledi_2509, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• Tutumlu, A., Imyarova,Z. & Meldibekova, Z. (2023) “Desovietizing Nation-Building in Kazakhstan: Case of 2020 Karday Violence”. BULLETIN Series Historical and Socio-Political Sciences 78(3(2023)). doi: 10.51889/2959-6017.2023.78.3.003.
• TÜKİB (2016) Anasayfa URL: https://tukib.kz/sayfa/tukib, (Erişim Tarihi: 17.06.2024).
• TürkPA (2008) TÜRKPA Hakkında. URL: https://turkpa.org/, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• TÜRKSOY (1993) İstoriya TÜRKSOY. URL: https://www.turksoy.org/ru-RU/istoriya-tyurksoj, (Erişim Tarihi: 14.06.2024).
• Wimmer, Andreas, & Schiller, Nina Glick. (2002) ‘Methodological Nationalism and beyond: Nation–State Building, Migration and the Social Sciences’. Global Networks 2(4):301–34. doi: 10.1111/1471-0374.00043.
• ZAKON.KZ (2010, April 29) DoktrinaNacional'nogoedinstvaKazahstana [Kazakistan Ulusal Birlik Doktrini], URL: https://online.zakon.kz/Document/?doc_id=30501158&pos=5;-106#pos=5;-106, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.06.2024).
• ZAKON.KZ (2022, December 23), Tokaev o janvarskihsobytijah: Jetobylovremjaispytanijdljanashegonaroda [Tokayev Ocak olaylarını anlattı: Halkımız için bir imtihan dönemiydi] URL: https://www.zakon.kz/politika/6379711-tokaev-o-yanvarskikh-sobytiyakh-eto-bylo-vremya-ispytaniy-dlya-nashego-naroda.html, (Erişim Tarihi: 14.06.2024).
• ZAKON.KZ (a) (2023, April 30), Skol'ko ljudej raznyh nacional'nostej prozhivaet v Kazahstane [Kazakistan'da farklı milletlerden kaç kişi yaşıyor?] URL: https://www.zakon.kz/obshestvo/6392097- skolko-lyudey-raznykh-natsionalnostey-prozhivaet-v-kazakhstane.html, (Erişim Tarihi: 16.06.2024).
• Zardykhan, Zharmukhamed (2004) ‘Russians in Kazakhstan and Demographic Change: Imperial Legacy and the Kazakh Way of Nation Building’. Asian Ethnicity 5(1):61–79. doi: 10.1080/1463136032000168907.