Silahlı çatışmalar hukukunda iç silahlı çatışmaların uluslararasılaşması

Öz

Yakın tarihte yaşanan silahlı çatışmaların büyük bir kısmı iç silahlı çatışma biçiminde ortaya çıkmıştır. Önceleri devletlerin iç meseleleri olarak görülen bu çatışmalar, günümüzde, insan hakkı ve insancıl hukukta meydana gelen gelişmelere paralel olarak uluslararası barış ve güvenliği tehdit eden ya da bozan durumlar olarak algılanmaktadır. İç silahlı çatışmalar çeşitli nedenlerle uluslararası silahlı çatışmaya dönüşebilir. İç silahlı çatışmaların uluslararasılaşması bu çatışmalara uygulanacak hukuk kuralları bakımından önemlidir. İç silahlı çatışmalarda taraflara insancıl hukuk kapsamında tanınan koruma son derece sınırlıyken uluslararasılaşan silahlı çatışmalara uluslararası insancıl hukuk kuralları bir bütün olarak uygulanır. Bu çalışmada iç silahlı çatışmaları uluslararasılaştıran nedenler ve bu nedenlere bağlı olarak ortaya çıkan sorunlar incelenmiştir

Anahtar Kelimeler

• İç silahlı çatışmalar, Uluslararası silahlı çatışmalar, İç silahlı çatışmaların uluslararasılaşması, İnsancıl hukuk, Savaş

Internationalization of Internal Armed Conflicts in Armed Conflicts Law

Öz

In the last few decades, most of the armed conflicts have occurred as internal armed conflicts. Although having been considered as a domestic issue of a state for several years, in response to several developments in the field of humanitarian law, these kinds of armed conflicts are now regarded as a threat to international peace and security. Depending on the various circumstances, an internal armed conflict may transform into an international armed conflict. Internationalization of an internal armed conflict is important for the determination of the rules to be applied to the conflict. While the protection of the parties is quite limited in an internal armed conflict, during the internationalized armed conflicts international humanitarian law is applicable as a whole. The reasons leading the internationalization of internal armed conflicts and problems related to this concept are assessed in this paper

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Internal armed conflicts, International armed conflicts, Internationalization of internal armed conflicts, Humanitarian law, War

Kaynakça

1. Abdullahzade, Cavid. (2014). Self Determinasyon ve Ayrılma Açısından Kırım Sorunu. Türkiye Adalet Akademisi Dergisi, Yıl 5, Sayı 19, s. 159 – 205.
2. Abi-Saab, Georges. (1979) Wars of National Liberation in the Geneva Conventions and Protocols. in Collected Courses of Hague Academy, Vol. 165, s. 353 – 445.
3. Bianchi, Andrea; Naqvi, Yasmin. (2014). Terrorism. in The Oxford Handbook of International Law in Armed Conflict, Andrew Clapham and Paola Gaeta (Eds.), Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, s. 574 – 604.
4. Barnes, Richard. (2005). Of Vanishing Points and Paradoxes: Terrorism and International Humanitarian Law. in International Conflict and Security Law – Essays in Memory of Hilaire McCoubrey, Richard Burchill, Nigel D. White and Justin Morris (Eds.), Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, s. 129 – 159.
5. Batur Yamaner, Melike, Öktem, Emre; Kurtdarcan, Bleda ve Uzun, Mehmet C.. 12 Ağustos 1949 Tarihli Cenevre Sözleşmeleri ve Ek Protokolleri. Galatasaray Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi ve International Committee of the Red Cross, 17.03.2016 tarihinde https://www.icrc.org/eng/home/languages/turkish/files/sozlesmeleri- protokolleri-conventions-protocols.pdf adresinden erişildi.
6. Butler, Sir Geoffrey; Maccoby, Simon. (1928) The Development of International Law. Gree and Co. Ltd, London/New York/Toronto: Longmans, 1928 (Reprinted Clark-New Jersey: The Lawbok Exchange, 2010).
7. Cassese, Antonio. (2008). Wars of National Liberation and Humanitarian Law. in Human Dimension of International Law: Selected Papers of Antonio Cassese, Antonio Cassese, Paola Gaeta, and Salvatore Zappalà (Eds), Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, s. 99 – 109.
8. Clapham, Andrew. (2015). The Concept of International Armed Conflict. in The 1949 Geneva Conventions: A Commentary, Andrew CLAPHAM, Paola GAETA and Marco SASSOLI (Eds.), Oxford/New York, Oxford University Press, s. 3 – 26.

9. Clapham, Andrew. (2012). Brierly’s Law of Nations – An Introduction to the Role of International Law in International Relations. (seventh edition), Oxford: Oxford University Press.
10. Clapham, Andrew. (2006). Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
11. Corn, Geoffrey S. (2007). Hamdan, Lebanon, and the Regulation of Hostilities: The Need to Recognize A Hybrid Category of Armed Conflict. Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, Vol. 40 (2), 2007, s. 295 – 355.
12. Crawford, Emily. (2011) Armed Conflict, International. in R. Wolfrum (ed), The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Oxford University Press, 2008 –, online edition, 17.03.2016 tarihinde [http://opil.ouplaw.com/home/epil] adresinden erişildi.
13. Crawford, Emily. (2011) Insurgency. in R. Wolfrum (ed), The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Oxford University Press, 2008 –, online edition, 17.03.2016 tarihinde [http://opil.ouplaw.com/home/epil] adresinden erişildi.
14. Detter, Ingrid. (2000). The Law of War. (second edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
15. Dinstein, Yoram. (2014). Non-International Armed Conflicts in International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
16. Dinstein, Yoram. (2011). War Aggression and Self Defence. (fifth edition) Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press.
17. Dinstein, Yoram. (2004). The Conduct of Hostilities under the Law of International Armed Conflict. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press,
18. Doehring, Karl. (2002). Self-Determination. in The Charter of the United Nations – A Commentary Vol. I. (second edition). Bruno Simma, Hermann Mosler, Albrecht Randelzhofer, Christian Tomuschat and Rüdiger Wolfrum (Eds.), Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, s. 47 – 63.
19. Fleck, Dieter. (2008). The Law of Non-International Armed Conflicts. in Handbook of International Humanitarian Law. Dieter Fleck (Ed.), Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, s. 605 – 633.
20. Garraway, Charles H. B. (2007) ‘Combatants’ – Substance or Semantics?. in International Law and Armed Conflict: Exploring the Faultlines – Essays in Honour of Yoram Dinstein, Michael Schmitt and Jelena Pejic (Eds.), Leiden/Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, s. 317 – 334.
21. Gray, Christine. (1996). Bosnia and Herzegovina: Civil War or Inter-State Conflict? Characterization and Consequences. British Yearbook of International Law, Vol 67(1), s. 155 – 197.
22. Greenwood, Christopher. (2008). Scope of Application of Humanitarian Law. in Handbook of International Humanitarian Law, Dieter Fleck (Ed.), Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, s. 45 – 78.
23. Greenwood, Christopher. (1987). The Concept of War in Modern International Law. International and Comparative Law Quarterly, Vol. 36(2),. 282 – 306.
24. Hacıoğlu, Berat Lale. (2007). NATO’s Intervention in Kosova: Historical, Political and Legal Aspects. Gazi Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, C. 11 (1-2), s. 777 – 813.
25. Halatçı Ulusoy, Ülkü. (2013). Uluslararası Hukuk Açısından Libya ve Suriye Örneğinde Koruma Yükümlülüğü. Türkiye Adalet Akademisi Dergisi, Yıl 4, Sayı 14, s. 269 – 297.
26. Heintze, Hans Joachim. (2007). Do Non-State Actors Challenge International Humanitarian Law. in International Humanitarian Law Facing New Challaenges, Wolff Heintschel von Heinegg and Volker Epping (Eds.), Berlin/Heidelberg/New York: Springer, s. 163 – 168.
27. Ibanga, Michael. (2002). Concept of Armed Conflict in Public International Law. Sri Lanka Journal of International Law, Vol. 14, s. 107 – 116.
28. ICRC. (2005) Customary International Humanitarian Law Vol. I: Rules. Jean-Marie Henckaerts and Louise Doswald-Beck, Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press.
29. ICRC. Rule 1. The Principle of Distinction between Civilians and Combatants. 17.03.2016 tarihinde https://www.icrc.org/customary- ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule1 adresinden erişildi.
30. ICRC. Rule 3. Definition of Combatants. 17.03.2016 tarihinde https://www.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule3. adresinden erişildi.
31. Johnston, Katie A. (2012). Transformations of conflict Status in Libya. Journal of Conflict and Security Law, Vol. 17 (1), s. 81 – 115.
32. Kelsen, Hans. (1942-1943). Collective and Individual Responsibility in International Law with Particular Regard to the Punishment of War Criminals. California Law Review, Vol. 31(5), s. 530 – 571.
33. Klabbers, Jan. (2013). International Law. Cambridge,/New York: Cambridge University Press.
34. La Haye, Eva. (2010). War Crimes in Internal Armed Conflicts. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press.
35. Le Mon, Christopher J. (2003). Unilateral Intervention by Invitation in Civil Wars: The Effective Control Test Tested. New York University Journal of International Law and Politics, Vol. 35 (3), s. 741 – 793.
36. Marauhn, Thilo; Ntoubandi, Zacharie F. (2011). Armed Conflict, Non- International. in R. Wolfrum (ed), The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Oxford University Press, 2008 –, online edition, 17.03.2016 tarihinde [http://opil.ouplaw.com/home/epil] adresinden erişildi.
37. Melzer, Nils. (2014). The Principle of Distinction Between Civilians and Combatants. in The Oxford Handbook of International Law in Armed Conflict, Andrew Clapham and Paola Gaeta (Eds.), Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, s. 296 – 331.
38. Melzer, Nils. (2012). Bolstering the Protection of Civillians in Armed Conflict. in Realizing Utopia: The Future of International Law. Antonio Cassese, Oxford: Oxford University Press, s. 508 – 518.
39. Meray, Seha L. (1968). Devletler Hukukuna Giriş Birinci Cilt. (3. Bası). Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi.
40. Meron, Theodor. (2000). The Humanization of Humanitarian Law. American Journal of International Law, Vol. 94(2), s. 239 – 278.
41. Moir, Lindsay. (2005). Towards the Unification of International Humanitarian Law. in International Conflict and Security Law – Essays in Memory of Hilaire McCoubrey, Richard Burchill, Nigel D. White and Justin Morris (Eds.), Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, s. 108 – 128.
42. Moir, Lindsay. (2002). The Law of Internal Armed Conflict. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press.
43. Nanda, Ved P. (2006). Terrorism as an ‘Internal Conflict’ under the 1977 Geneva Protocol: Defining ‘Enemy Combatant’ and the International/Legal Consequences. Michigan State Journal of International Law, Vol. 14, s. 27 – 38.
44. Öktem, A. Emre. (2011). Terörizm, İnsancıl Hukuk ve İnsan Hakları. (2. basım). İstanbul: Derin Yayınları.
45. Pazarcı, Hüseyin. (2015) Türk Dış Politikasının Başlıca Sorunları, Ankara: Turhan Kitabevi.
46. Pazarcı, Hüseyin. (2006). Uluslararası Hukuk Dersleri – 4. Kitap. (2. Bası). Ankara: Turhan Kitabevi.
47. Perna, Laura. (2006). The Formation of the Treaty Law of Non-International Armed Conflicts. International Humanitarian Law Series Vol. 14, Leiden/Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
48. Radin, Sasha. (2013). The Current Relevance of the Recognition of Belligerency. in Armed Conflict and International Law: In Search of the Human Face – Liber Amicorum in Memory of Avril McDonald, Marielle Matthee, Brigit Toebes and Marcel Brus (eds), The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press, s. 115 – 152.
49. Radin, Sasha. (2013). Global Armed Conflict? The Threshold of Extraterritorial Non-International Armed Conflicts. International Law Studies, Vol. 89, s. 696 – 743.
50. Randelzhofer, Albrecht; Dörr, Oliver. (2012). Article 2 (4). in The Charter of the United Nations – A Commentary Vol. I. (third edition) Bruno Simma, Daniel-Erasmus Kahn, Georg Nolte and Andreas Paulus (Eds.), Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2012, s. 200 – 234.
51. Riedel, Eibe H. (1982). Recognition of Belligerency. in Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Vol. 4, Amsterdam/New York/Oxford: North-Holland Publishing Company, s. 167 – 171.
52. Rona, Gabor. (2004-2005). Legal Frameworks to Combat Terrorism: An Abundant Inventory of Existing Tools. Chicago Journal of International Law, Vol. 5(2), s. 499 – 509.
53. Sassoli, Marco. (2004). Use and Abuse of the Laws of War in the ‘War on Terrorism’. Law and Inequality, Vol. 22 (2), s. 479 – 221.
54. Schaller, Christian. (2009). Guerilla Forces. in R. Wolfrum (ed), The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Oxford University Press, 2008 –, online edition, 17.03.2016 tarihinde [http://opil.ouplaw.com/home/epil] adresinden erişildi.
55. Schindler, Dietrich. (1979). The Different Types of Armed Conflicts according to the Geneva Conventions and Protocols. in Collected Courses of Hague Academy, Vol. 163, s. 117 – 163.
56. Schmitt, Michael N. (2013). Charting the Legal Geopraphy of Non- International Armed Conflict. Military Law and the Law of War Review, Vol. 52 (1), s. 93 – 111.
57. Schwarzenberger, Georg. (1971). Terrorists, Guerilleros and Mercenaries. University of Toledo Law Review, Vol. 3(1), s. 71 – 88.
58. Shamir-Borer, Eran. (2007). Revisiting Hamdan v. Rumsfeld’s Analysis of the Laws of Armed Conflict. Emory International Law Review, Vol. 21, s. 601 – 619.
59. Sivakumaran, Sandesh. (2012). The Law of Non-International Armed Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
60. Spinedi, Marina. (2007). On the Non-Attribution of the Bosnian Serbs’ Conduct to Serbia. Journal of International Criminal Justice, Vol. 5 (4), s. 829 – 838.
61. Solis, Gary D. (2010) The Law of Armed Conflict. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press,
62. Tanca, Antonio. (1993). Foreign Armed Intervention in Internal Conflict. Dodrecht/Boston/London: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
63. Taşdemir, Fatma. (2009). Uluslararası Nitelikte Olmayan Silahlı Çatışmalar Hukuku. Ankara: Adalet Yayınevi.
64. Topal, Ahmet Hamdi. (2005). Uluslararası Terörizm ve Terörist Eylemlere Karşı Kuvvet Kullanımı. İstanbul: Beta Basım.
65. Van Den Boogard, Jeroen C. (2013). Fighting by the Principles: Principles as a Source of International Humanitarian Law. in Armed Conflict and International Law: In Search of the Human Face – Liber Amicorum in Memory of Avril McDonald, Marielle Matthee, Brigit Toebes and Marcel Brus(eds), The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press, s. 3 – 31.
66. Walker, William. (1988-1989). The International Law Applicable to Guerrilla Movements in Internal Armed Conflicts: A Case Study of Contra Attacks on Nicaraguan Farming Cooperatives. New York University Journal of International Law and Politics, Vol. 21 (1), s. 147 – 194.
67. Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, 14 May 1954, 249 UNTS 215, No. 3511.
68. Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 31, No. 970.
69. Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of the Armed Forces at Sea, 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 85, No. 971.
70. Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 135, No. 972.
71. Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 287, No. 973.
72. ICRC, Commentary of 1958 on the Article 2 of Convention (IV) Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, Geneva 12 August 1949, 17.03.2016 tarihinde
73. https://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Comment.xsp?action=openDocument &documentId=5AA133B15493D9D0C12563CD0042A15A adresinden erişildi.
74. National Democratic Front of the Philippines, Declaration of Undertaking to Apply the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and Protocol I of 1977, 5 July 1996, 17.03.2016 tarihinde http://www.ndfp.org/ndfp-declaration-of- undertaking-to-apply-the-geneva-conventions-of-1949-and-protocol-i- of-1977-2/ adresinden erişildi.
75. Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims ofIinternational Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 08.06.1977, 1125 UNTS 3, No. 17512.
76. Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II), 08.06.1977, 1125 UNTS 609, No. 17513.
77. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 17.07.1998, 2187 UNTS 90, No. 38544.
78. Second Protocol to The Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, 26 March 1999, 2253 UNTS 212, No. 3511.
79. ILC, Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, UN Doc. A/Res/56/83, 12 December 2001.
80. UN General Assembly, General Assembly Resolution 2625 [Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co- operation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations], 24 October 1970, A/RES/25/2625 (1970).
81. UN General Assembly, General Assembly Resolution 3070 [Importance of the Universal Realization of the Right of Peoples to Self-determination and of the Speedy Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples for the Effective Guarantee and Observance of Human Rights], 30 November 1973, A/RES/28/3070 (1973).
82. UN General Assembly, General Assembly Resolution 3314 [Definition of Aggression], 14 December 1974, A/RES/29/3314 (1974).
83. UN Security Council, Security Council Resolution 2249[Threats to international peace and security caused by terrorist acts], 20 November 2015, S/RES/2249 (2015).
84. UN Security Council, Security Council Resolution 2192[Middle East], 18 December 2014, S/RES/2192 (2014).
85. UN Security Council, Security Council Resolution 2191[Middle East], 17 December 2014, S/RES/2191 (2014).
86. UN Security Council, Security Council Resolution 2165[Middle East], 14 July 2014, S/RES/2165 (2014).
87. UN Security Council, Security Council Resolution 2139[Middle East], 22 February 2014, S/RES/2139 (2014).
88. UN Security Council, Security Council Resolution 2118[Middle East], 27 September 2013, S/RES/2118 (2013).
89. UN Security Council, Security Council Resolution 2042[Middle East], 21 April 2012, S/RES/2043 (2012).
90. UN Security Council, Security Council Resolution 2042[Middle East], 14 April 2012, S/RES/2042 (2012).
91. UN Security Council, Security Council Resolution 1973 [Libya], 17 March 2011, S/RES/1973 (2011).
92. UN Security Council, Security Council Resolution 1368 [on Threats to International Peace and Security Caused by Terrorist Acts ], 12 September 2001, S/RES/1368 (2001).
93. UN Security Council, Security Council Resolution 1190 [Angola], 13 August 1998, S/RES/1190 (1998).
94. UN Security Council, Security Council Resolution 1160 [On the letters from the United Kingdom (S/1998/223) and the United States (S/1998/272) ], 31 March 1998, S/RES/1160 (1998).
95. UN Security Council, Security Council Resolution 752 [Bosnia and Herzegovina ], 5 May 1992, S/RES/752 (1992).
96. UN Security Council, Security Council Resolution 242 [on land for peace], 22 November 1967, S/RES/242 (1967).
97. Case Concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, 26 February 2007, 2007 ICJ Rep.
98. Case Concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), Judgement, 19 December 2005, 2005 ICJ Rep.
99. Corfu Channel Case (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland v. Albania), Merits, Judgement of 9 April 1949, 1949 ICJ Rep.
100. Legal Consequences of Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, 2004 ICJ Rep.
101. Legality of the Threat of the Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, 8 July 1996, 1996 ICJ Rep.
102. Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua(Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgement of 27 June 1986, 1986 I.C.J. Rep.
103. Revisión constitucional del "Protocolo adicional a los Convenios de Ginebra del 12 de agosto de 1949, relativo a la protección de las víctimas de los conflictos armados sin carácter internacional (Protocolo II)" hecho en Ginebra el 8 de junio de 1977, y de la Ley 171 del 16 de diciembre de 1994, por medio de la cual se aprueba dicho Protocolo, Corte Constitucional de Colombia, Sentencia No. C-225/95, REF: Expediente No. L.A.T.-040.
104. Salim Ahmed HAMDAN (Petitioner) v. Donald H. RUMSFELD (Secretary of Defence), No. 05-184, 548 U.S. S. Ct. 2006, 29 June 2006.
105. The Prosecutor v. Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo, “Decision Pursuant to Article 61(7)(a) and (b) of the Rome Statute on the Charges of the Prosecutor Against Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo”, No.: ICC-01/05-01/08, ICC, Pre- Trial Chamber II, 15 June 2009.
106. The Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga, “Decision on the Evidence and Information Provided by the Prosecution for the Issuance of a Warrant of Arrest of Germain Katanga”, No.: ICC-01/04-01/07, ICC, Pre-Trial Chamber I, 6 July 2007.
107. The Prosecutor v. Ljube Boskoski and Johan Tarculovski, Judgement, ICTY, Trial Chamber II, Case No: IT-04-82-T, 10 July 2008.
108. The Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic, “Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction”, Case No.: IT-94-1-AR72, Appeals Chamber, 2 October 1995 (“Tadic Decision on Jurisdiction”), Tadic (1995) I ICTY JR 353).
109. The Prosecutor v. Akayesu, Judgement, ICTR-96-4-T, 2 September 1998.