The Foreign Policy Orientations and The Public Diplomacy of Hungary

Öz

This study aims to examine practices, tools and methods of Hungary’s public diplomacy in consideration of its foreign policy orientations. In addition, by seeing the fact that the conducted public diplomacy studies are related with various subjects and themes, the article tries to give the answers of such questions as “Whom does Hungary intend to influence, why and how?” Accordingly, at first, it is discussed that Hungary’s history of public diplomacy began with the cultural diplomacy activities between the two world wars. Secondly, foreign policy orientations of Hungary, which gained its independence after the Cold War, are clarified. In post-Cold War period, the West (Europe and Atlantic), regional cooperation, Hungarian minorities and initiative for the East emerged as foreign policy orientations of Hungary. Subsequently in the article, how branding strategy and cultural diplomacy have been gathered in Hungary’s public diplomacy and how they have been carried out, are discussed questions in the frame of foreign policy orientations. Besides, it is addressed that how enterprises in the fields of education, science and sports are used for the country branding. Consequently, this article argues that Hungary has achieved to use its public diplomacy effectively in accordance with its foreign policy objectives and interests.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Hungary
• Hungarian Foreign Policy
• Public Diplomacy
• Country Branding
• Cultural Diplomacy

Macaristan Dış Politikasının Yönelimleri ve Kamu Diplomasisi

Öz

Bu çalışma, Macaristan’ın dış politika yönelimleri ışığında kamu diplomasisi uygulamalarını, araçlarını ve yöntemlerini incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bununla birlikte makalede, kamu diplomasisi çalışmalarının çeşitli konular veya temalar etrafında yapıldığı göz önünde bulundurularak, Macaristan’ın kimi ve/veya kimleri, neden ve nasıl etkilemeye çalıştığı gibi soruların cevapları da verilmeye çalışılmaktadır. Bu doğrultuda öncelikle, Macaristan kamu diplomasisi tarihinin iki dünya savaşı arasında uygulanan kültürel diplomasi faaliyetleriyle başladığı tartışılmaktadır. İkinci olarak, Soğuk Savaş sonrasında bağımsızlığını kazanan Macaristan dış politikasının yönelimleri açıklanmaktadır. Macaristan’ın Soğuk Savaş sonrası dönemde dış politika yönelimleri Batı (Avrupa ve Atlantik), bölgesel işbirliği, Macar azınlıklar ve Doğu açılımı şeklinde gerçekleşmiştir. Sonraki bölümde ise, makalede dış politika yönelimleri çerçevesinde Macaristan kamu diplomasisinde markalama stratejisi ve kültürel diplomasinin nasıl bir araya getirilerek yürütüldüğü ele alınmaktadır. Ayrıca eğitim, bilim ve spor alanlarındaki girişimlerin ülkeyi markalamak için nasıl kullanıldığına değinilmektedir. Sonuç olarak bu makale, Macaristan’ın, kamu diplomasisini dış politika amaçları ve çıkarları doğrultusunda etkili bir şekilde kullanabildiğini öne sürmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Macaristan
• Macaristan Dış Politikası
• Kamu Diplomasisi
• Ülke Markalama
• Kültürel Diplomasi

Kaynakça

1. Armaoğlu, F. (2012). 20. yüzyıl siyasi tarihi 1914-1995. İstanbul: Alkım Yayınevi.
2. Atatorun, M. (2021). Avrupa Birliği bölgesel politikası ve Macaristan. İstanbul: Kriter Yayınevi.
3. Baranyi, T. P. (2022). Hungary’s role in the organization of Turkic states as an observer state: limitations and opportunities. Perceptions, 27(1), 121-136. Erişim adresi: https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/perception/issue/71446/1149306
4. Barston, R. P. (2014). Modern diplomacy. Oxon ve New York: Routledge.
5. Buzogany, A. (2017). Illiberal democracy in Hungary: authoritarian diffusion or domestic causation? Democratization, 0(0), 1-19. doi:10.1080/13510347.2017.1328676
6. Cabinet Office of the Prime Minister. (2021, 12 Kasım). Hungary to initiate joint summit of Turkic Council and V4. Erişim adresi: https://2015-2022.miniszterelnok.hu/hungary-to-initiate-joint-summit-of-turkic-council-and-v4/
7. CEFTA. (2023). Erişim adresi: https://cefta.int/
8. CEI. (2023). Erişim adresi: https://www.cei.int/

9. Constantinou, C. M. ve Sharp, P. (2016). Theoretical perspectives in diplomacy. C. M. Contantinou, P. Kerr ve P. Sharp (Ed.), The Sage handbook of public diplomacy içinde (s. 13-27). Londra: Sage.
10. Cull, N. J. (2006). “Public diplomacy” before Gullion: The evolution of a phrase. Erişim adresi: https://uscpublicdiplomacy.org/blog/public-diplomacy-gullion-evolution-phrase
11. Cull, N. J. (2009). Public diplomacy: Lessons from the past. Los Angeles: Figueroa Press.
12. Cultural Diplomacy Budapest. (2023a). Institutes. Erişim adresi: https://culture.hu/en/budapest/culturalinstitutes
13. Cultural Diplomacy Budapest. (2023b). What we do. Erişim adresi: https://culture.hu/en/budapest/whatwedo
14. Edwards, L. (2001). Mediapolitik: How the mass media have transformed world politics. Washington D.C.: The Catholic University of American Press.
15. Eken, M. E. (2015). Jeopolitik derinlik, akılcı güç ve popüler kültür: Stratejik bir konsept olarak gündelik hayatın önemi. M. Şahin ve S. Çevik (Ed.), Türk dış politikası ve kamu diplomasisi içinde (s. 17-44). Ankara: Nobel Yayınevi.
16. Eken, M. E. (2019). How geopolitical becomes personal: Method acting, war films and affect. Journal of International Political Theory, 15(2), 210-228. doi:10.1177/1755088219832328
17. European Commission. (1991). European agreements with Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland. Erişim adresi: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_91_1033
18. Fan, Y. (2006). Branding the nation: What is being branded? Journal of Vacation Marketing, 12(1), 5-14. doi:10.1177/1356766706056633
19. Garamvögyi, B., ve Doczi, T. (2021). Sport as a tool for public diplomacy in Hungary. Physical Culture and Sport, 90(1), 39-49. doi:10.2478/pcssr-2021-0012
20. Gilboa, E. (2001). Diplomacy in the media age: Three models of uses and effects. Diplomacy and Statecraft, 12(2), 1-28. doi:10.1080/09592290108406201
21. Goff, P. M. (2020). Cultural diplomacy. N. Snow ve N. J. Cull (Ed.), Routledge handbook of public diplomacy içinde (s. 30-37). New York and Oxon: Routledge.
22. Hettyey, A. (2023). Hungarian foreign policy 1990 to 2018: Europeanization without conviction. E. Bos ve A. Lorenz (Ed.), Politics and society in Hungary: (De-)Democratization, Orban and the EU içinde (s. 157-172). Wiesbaden: Springer.
23. Huijgh, E. (2016). Public diplomacy. C. M. Constantinou, P. Kerr ve P. Sharp (Ed.), The Sage handbook of diplomacy içinde (s. 437-450). Londra: Sage.
24. Hungarian OECD National Council. (2023). Hungary and the OECD. Erişim adresi: https://oecdntt.hu/en
25. Institute for Cultural Diplomacy. (2023). Country profiles: Hungary. Erişim adresi: http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/culturaldiplomacynews/content/pdf/Cultural_Diplomacy_Outlook_Report_2011_-_03-07.pdf
26. International Labour Organization. (1991). Agreement of 16 December 1991 establishing an association between the European Community and its member states, and the Republic of Hungary. Erişim adresi: https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_isn=44279&p_lang=en
27. Iriye, A. (1997). Cultural internationalism and world order. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
28. Kaneva, N. (2012). Nation branding in post-communist Europe: Identities, markets, and democracy. N. Kaneva (Ed.), Branding post-communist nations: Marketizing National Identities in the “New” Europe içinde (s. 3-22). New York: Routledge.
29. Kerr, P. ve Wiseman, G. (2018). Diplomacy in a globalizing world: Theories and practices. New York: Oxford University Press.
30. Kiss, L. J. (2008). Integration, nation und modernisierung: Ungarns außenpolitik am anfang des 21. Jahrhundert. E. Bos ve J. Dieringer (Ed.), Genese einer union der 27: Die Europäische Union nach der osterweiterung içinde (s. 397-418). Wiesbaden: Springer.
31. Kulcsar, L. J., ve Yum, Y. (2012). One nation, one brand? Nation branding and identity reconstruction in post-communist Hungary. N. Kaneva (Ed.), Branding post-communist nations: Marketizing national identities in the “new” Europe içinde (s. 193-212). New York: Routledge.
32. Leira, H. (2016). A conceptual history of diplomacy. P. Kerr ve P. Sharp (Ed.), The Sage handbook of public diplomacy içinde (s. 28-38). Londra: Sage.
33. Macartney, C. A. (1956). October fifteenth: A history of modern Hungary 1929-1945. Edinburgh: The Edinburgh University Press.
34. Mark, S. L. (2010). Rethinking cultural diplomacy: The cultural diplomacy of New Zealand, the Canadian Federation and Quebec. Political Science, 62(1), 62-83. doi:10.1177/0032318710370466
35. Melissen, J. (2005). The new public diplomacy: Between theory and practice. J. Melissen (Ed.), The new public diplomacy: Soft power in international relations içinde (s. 3-27). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
36. Nagy, Z. (2021). The race for revision and recognition: Interwar Hungarian cultural diplomacy in context. Contemporary European History, 30(2), 231-247. doi:10.1017/S0960777321000011
37. Ociepka, B. (2013). New member’s public diplomacy. M. K. D. Cross ve J. Melissen (Ed.), European public diplomacy: Soft power at work içinde (s. 39-56). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
38. Organization of Turkic States. (2023). Areas of cooperation. Erişim adresi: https://www.turkicstates.org/en/isbirligi-alanlari
39. Rockwell, J. (1992, 7 Mayıs). Architecture, mismash means eclectic. Erişim adresi: https://www.nytimes.com/1992/05/07/arts/the-talk-of-seville-in-expo-architecture-mishmash-means-eclectic.html
40. Sevin, E. ve Eken, M. E. (2018). Global indices and nation branding. Y. Watanabe (Ed.), Handbook of cultural security içinde (s. 323-342). Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing.
41. Seyaz, A. (2018). Bir melez rejim örneği olarak rekabetçi otoriteryanizm. Kırklareli Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 7(3), 190-204. Erişim adresi: https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/klujfeas/issue/39222/448152
42. Sharp, P. (2005). Revolutionary states, outlaw regimes and the techniques of public diplomacy. J. Melissen (Ed.), The new public diplomacy: Soft power in international relations içinde (s.106-123). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
43. Simonyi, A. (2003). Hungarian foreign policy on the threshold of the new millennium. Hungarian Studies, 17(1), 91-96. doi:10.1556/hstud.17.2003.1.7
44. Snow, N. (2020). Rethinking public diplomacy in the 2020s. N. Snow ve N. J. Cull (Ed.), Routledge handbook of public diplomacy içinde (s. 3-12). Oxon ve New York: Routledge.
45. Sports Business Journal. (2015, 25 Mayıs). Teqball is a new tabletop sport that allows soccer players to perfect their skills. Erişim adresi: https://www.sportsbusinessjournal.com/Daily/Issues/2015/05/25/Technology/teqball-new-tabletop-sport-allows-soccer-players-perfect-skills
46. Szondi, G. (2007). The role and challenges of country branding in transition countries: The central and eastern European experience. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 3(1), 8-20. doi:10.1057/palgrave.pb.6000044
47. Szondi, G. (2009). Central and eastern European public diplomacy: A transitional perspective on national reputation management. N. Snow ve P. M. Taylor (Ed.), Routledge handbook of public diplomacy içinde (s. 292-313). New York: Routledge.
48. Tarrosy, I., ve Vörös, A. Z. (2020). Hungary’s Pragmatic foreign policy in a post-American world. Politics in Central Europe, 16, 113-134. doi:10.2478/pce-2020-0006
49. Todosijevic, B., ve Enyedi, Z. (2008). Authoritarianism without dominant ideology: Political manifestations of authoritarian attitudes in Hungary. Political Psychology, 29(5), 767-787. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00663.x
50. Trager, R. F. (2016). The diplomacy of war and peace. Annual Review of Political Science, 19, 205-228. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-051214-100534
51. van Ham, P. (2001). The rise of the brand state: The postmodern politics of image and reputation. Foreign Affairs, 80(5), 2-6. doi:10.2307/20050245
52. Varga, I. (2000). Development of the Hungarian foreign policy in the last ten years: A comparison of the foreign policy programs of the post-transition Hungarian governments. National Security and The Future, 2(1), 117-131. Erişim adresi: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/14391645.pdf
53. Visegrad Group. (2011). The Bratislava Declaration of the prime ministers of the Czech Republic, The Republic of Hungary, the Republic of Poland and the Slovak Republic on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the Visegrad Group. Erişim adresi: https://www.visegradgroup.eu/2011/the-bratislava