China's Gradual Revisionism: The Normative and Institutional Transformation of the Liberal World Order

Öz

This study examines China’s strategic orientation within the liberal international order established after the Second World War. It asks whether China should be understood as a status quo power or as a revisionist actor seeking to transform the existing international order. Drawing on the literature on world order and revisionism, the article analyzes China’s foreign policy discourse, its engagement with multilateral institutions, and its global initiatives through qualitative content analysis and comparative institutional analysis. The findings indicate that China is not pursuing a revisionist strategy aimed at overturning the liberal order. Rather, Beijing seeks to expand its representation and influence within existing institutions while simultaneously promoting alternative multilateral platforms and normative priorities centered on national sovereignty, non-interference in domestic affairs, and development. The article argues that China’s approach does not fit neatly within the conventional status quo–revisionist dichotomy. It therefore conceptualizes China’s strategy as “gradual revisionism,” defined as an attempt to reshape the normative and institutional structures of the world order from within, rather than through military confrontation or systemic rupture.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Chinese foreign policy
• Pluralistic international community
• World order
• Revisionism
• Gradual revisionism

Çin'in Tedrici Revizyonizmi: Liberal Dünya Düzeninin Normatif ve Kurumsal Dönüşümü

Öz

Bu çalışma, İkinci Dünya Savaşı'ndan sonra kurulan liberal uluslararası düzen içinde Çin'in stratejik yönelimini irdelemektedir. Bu çalışmanın temel sorunsalı, Çin’in statükoyu koruyan bir güç mü yoksa mevcut dünya düzenini dönüştürmeyi hedefleyen revizyonist bir aktör mü olarak değerlendirilmesi gerektiğidir. Dünya düzeni ve revizyonizm alanyazınından yararlanan makale, Çin'in dış politika söylemini, çok-taraflı kurumlarla etkileşimini ve küresel girişimlerini nitel içerik analizi ve karşılaştırmalı kurumsal analiz yoluyla incelemektedir. Bulgular, Çin'in liberal düzenin yıkmayı amaçlayan revizyonist bir strateji izlemediğini göstermektedir. Bunun yerine, mevcut kurumlar içindeki temsilini ve etkisini genişletmeyi ve aynı zamanda ulusal egemenlik, içişlerine müdahale etmeme ve kalkınma merkezli alternatif çok-taraflı platformları ve normatif öncelikleri teşvik etmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Makale, Çin'in yaklaşımının geleneksel statüko-revizyonist ikilemine yeterince uymadığını savunmaktadır. Bu nedenle, Çin'in stratejisini, askeri çatışma veya sistemik kopma yoluyla değil, içeriden dünya düzeninin normatif ve kurumsal yapısını yeniden şekillendirme girişimi olarak tanımlanan "tedrici revizyonizm" olarak kavramsallaştırmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Çin dış politikası
• Çoğulcu uluslararası toplum
• Dünya düzeni
• Revizyonizm
• tedrici revizyonizm

Kaynakça

1. Abb, P. (2025). Is there a Chinese “developmental peace”? Evidence from the Belt and Road Initiative’s impact on conflict states. Journal of Contemporary China, 34(155), 861-879.
2. Acharya, A. (2018). Constructing global order: Agency and change in world politics. Cambridge University Press.
3. Allen-Ebrahimian, B. (2018, March 7). China’s long arm reaches into American campuses. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/03/07/chinas-long-arm-reaches-into-american-campuses-chinese-students-scholars-association-university-communist-party/
4. Allison, G. (2017). Destined for war: Can America and China escape Thucydides’s trap? Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
5. Arase, D. (2023). China’s Global Security Initiative: Narratives, origins and implications. Southeast Asian Affairs, 2023(1), 34-50.
6. Arnold, T. D. (2025). De-dollarization and global sovereignty: BRICS’quest for a new financial paradigm. Human Geography, 18(1), 78-83.
7. Arslan, F. E. (2015, October 1). Fransa'dan BM'ye veto hakkı kısıtlama önerisi. Anadolu Ajansı. https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/dunya/fransadan-bmye-veto-hakki-kisitlama-onerisi/395973
8. Avanoğlu, Y. B. (2023). Parti kongresinden sonra Çin. Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekonomik Çalışmalar Dergisi, 4(1), 122-128.

9. Aydın, N. (2021, March 19). Çin, güvenlik gerekçesiyle Tesla marka araçların askeri tesislere girişini yasakladı. Anadolu Ajansı. https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/dunya/cin-guvenlik-gerekcesiyle-tesla-marka-araclarin-askeri-tesislere-girisini-yasakladi/2181932
10. Aytekin, E. (2022, April 21). Çin Devlet Başkanı Şi, “Küresel Güvenlik Girişimi” önerisinde bulundu. Anadolu Ajansı. https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/dunya/cin-devlet-baskani-si-kuresel-guvenlik-girisimi-onerisinde-bulundu/2569707
11. Bader, J. A. (2016). How Xi Jinping sees the world & why. Brookings Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/xi_jinping_worldview_bader-1.pdf
12. Baldwin, R. (2024). China is the world’s sole manufacturing superpower: A line sketch of the rise. CEPR Publication. https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/china-worlds-sole-manufacturing-superpower-line-sketch-rise
13. Beyaz, F. (2024). Konfüçyüsçü değerlerin Çin’in dış politikası üzerindeki etkisi. Doğu Asya Araştırmaları Dergisi, 7(14), 64-84.
14. Blinken, A. J. (2022, May 26). The administration’s approach to the People’s Republic of China. U.S. Department of State. https://www.state.gov/the-administrations-approach-to-the-peoples-republic-of-china/
15. Bull, H. (1977). The anarchical society: A study of order in world politics. Macmillan.
16. Buzan, B. (2004). From international to world society?: English school theory and the social structure of globalisation. Cambridge University Press.
17. Cai, K. G. (2023). China’s initiatives: A bypassing strategy for the reform of global economic governance. Chinese Political Science Review, 8(1), 1-17.
18. Callaghan, M., & Hubbard, P. (2016). The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank: Multilateralism on the Silk Road. China Economic Journal, 9(2), 116-139.
19. Chan, R. (2022). Political training under the Belt and Road Initiative: A look at the Chinese Communist Party’s first party school in Africa. Policy Commons. https://policycommons.net/artifacts/2654657/political-training-under-the-belt-and-road-initiative/3677573/
20. Chan, S. (2021). Challenging the liberal order: The U.S. hegemon as a revisionist power. International Affairs, 97(5), 1335-1352.
21. China’s message to the global south. (2023, July 6). The Economist. https://www.economist.com/china/2023/07/06/chinas-message-to-the-global-south
22. Chinese Mission to the United Nations. (2024, July 16). Remarks by China’s Permanent Representative to the UN Ambassador Fu Cong at the UN Security Council Open Debate on Multilateral Cooperation in the Interest of a More Just, Democratic and Sustainable World Order. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, PRC. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/eng/xw/zwbd/202407/t20240718_11456200.html
23. China’s State Council Information Office. (2021). China: Democracy that works. https://subsites.chinadaily.com.cn/npc/2021-12/04/c_687613.htm
24. China’s vision for a new world order. (2024, January 11). China in 5. https://chinain5.com/2024/01/11/chinas-vision-for-a-new-world-order/
25. Cooley, A., Nexon, D., & Ward, S. (2019). Revising order or challenging the balance of military power? An alternative typology of revisionist and status-quo states. Review of International Studies, 45(4), 689-708.
26. Davidson, J. W. (2006). The Enduring Importance of Revisionism and Status-quo Seeking. In The Origins of Revisionist and Status-quo States (ss. 1-18). Palgrave Macmillan US.
27. Davis, M. C. (2017). The reluctant intervenor: The UN Security Council, China’s worldview, and humanitarian intervention. In International intervention in the post-Cold War world (ss. 241-253). Routledge.
28. Doshi, R. (2021). The long game: China’s grand strategy to displace American order. Oxford University Press.
29. Dulkadir, D. (2020). Dünya güç hiyerarşisinde dönüşüm ve Çin’in hegemonik yükselişi. Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi, 2(2), 78-94.
30. Eichengreen, B. (2022). Sanctions, SWIFT, and China's cross-border interbank payments system. Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS). https://www.csis.org/analysis/sanctions-swift-and-chinas-cross-border-interbank-payments-system
31. Ertuğrul, Ü. E. (2016). Koruma sorumluluğu: İnsani müdahaleyi makyajlamak. Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 20(2), 441-470.
32. Feng, J. (2022, September 14). China gives clearest support for Russia’s invasion of Ukraine so far. Newsweek. https://www.newsweek.com/china-russia-ukraine-support-li-zhanshu-vyacheslav-volodin-1742731
33. Friedberg, A. L. (2011). A contest for supremacy: China, America, and the struggle for mastery in Asia. WW Norton & Company.
34. Fung, C. J., & Lam, S.-h. (2022). Mixed report card: China’s influence at the United Nations. Lowy Institute. https://www.lowyinstitute.org/publications/mixed-report-card-china-s-influence-united-nations
35. Garwood-Gowers, A. (2016). China’s “responsible protection” concept: Reinterpreting the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) and military intervention for humanitarian purposes. Asian Journal of International Law, 6(1), 89-118.
36. Gilpin, R. (1981). War and change in world politics. Cambridge University Press.
37. Gowan, R. (2020, September 14). China’s pragmatic approach to UN peacekeeping. Brookings Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/chinas-pragmatic-approach-to-un-peacekeeping/
38. Green, M. A. (2023, September 21). China is the top trading partner to more than 120 countries. Wilson Center. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/china-top-trading-partner-more-120-countries
39. Groitl, G. (2023). Russia, China and the revisionist assault on the Western liberal international order. Palgrave Macmillan.
40. Guo, J. (2023). The political economy of China–Latin America relations: The making of a post-boom paradigm. China International Strategy Review, 5(1), 113-138.
41. Hamilton, D. S., & Renouard, J. (2024). Crossing the river by feeling the stones: The United States, Europe, and China in an age of rivalry and disruption. In The Transatlantic community and China in the age of disruption (ss. 9-43). Routledge.
42. Hanrieder, T. (2014). Gradual change in international organisations: Agency theory and historical institutionalism. Politics, 34(4), 324-333.
43. Ikenberry, G. J. (2001). After Victory. Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Rebuilding of Order after Major Wars, Princeton University Press.
44. Ikenberry, G. J. (2011). Liberal leviathan: The origins, crisis, and transformation of the American world order. Princeton University Press.
45. Ikenberry, G. J. (2018). The end of liberal international order?. International affairs, 94(1), 7-23.
46. Johnston, A. I. (2003). Is China a status quo power?. International security, 27(4), 5-56.
47. Johnston, A. I. (2019). China in a world of orders: Rethinking compliance and challenge in the international system. International Security, 44(2), 9–60.
48. Jiechi, Y. (2022, May 16). Studying and implementing Xi Jinping Thought on Diplomacy in a deep-going way and opening up new horizons in China's external work. People's Daily Online. https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/xw/zyjh/202405/t20240530_11341620.html
49. Kamiloğlu, C. (2022, November 18). ABD: BMGK’nin yapısının değişmesini destekliyoruz. Voice of America. https://www.voaturkce.com/a/abd-bm-guvenlik-konseyinin-yapisinin-degismesini-destekliyoruz/6840865.html
50. Keane, J., & He, B. (2024). China’s new empire defined. In China’s Galaxy Empire: Wealth, power, war, and peace in the new Chinese century (ss. 1-28). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197629116.003.0001
51. Kennedy, S., & Cheng, S. (Eds.). (2012). From rule takers to rule makers: The growing role of Chinese in global governance. Indiana University Research Center for Chinese Politics & Business.
52. Kinzelbach, K. (2019). Human rights in Chinese foreign policy: A battle for global public opinion. In Handbook on human rights in China (ss. 84-102). Edward Elgar Publishing.
53. Kutluay Tutar, F., & Bahsi Koçer, F. Ş. (2019). Çin’in yeni ipek yolu projesi: Bir kuşak bir yol. Journal of Social, Humanities and Administrative Sciences, 5(17), 618-626.
54. Liboreiro, J. (2023, September 25). EU and China may 'drift apart' due to political tensions and economic disputes, warns Dombrovskis. Euronews. https://www.euronews.com/business/2023/09/25/eu-and-china-may-drift-apart-due-to-political-tensions-and-economic-disputes-warns-dombrov
55. Loke, B. (2018). China’s economic slowdown: Implications for Beijing’s institutional power and global governance role. The Pacific Review, 31(5), 673-691.
56. Ma, S. (2024, August 23). China’s yuan hits internationalisation landmark with record share of global payments. South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3275668/chinas-yuan-hits-internationalisation-landmark-record-share-global-payments
57. Malpass, D., Duesterberg, T. J., & Meservey, J. (2024). China is winning the Belt and Road debt battles. Hudson Institute. https://www.hudson.org/economics/china-winning-belt-road-debt-battles-david-malpass-joshua-meservey-thomas-duesterberg
58. McCarthy, S. (2023, November 10). China has a sweeping vision to reshape the world - and countries are listening. CNN World. https://edition.cnn.com/2023/11/09/china/china-xi-jinping-world-order-intl-hnk/index.html
59. McGregor, R. (2023). The challenge of China for the liberal international order. In The transformation of the liberal international order: evolutions and limitations (ss. 91-96). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore.
60. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. (2023, February 27). Following a Chinese path of human rights development and contributing China’s strength to global human rights governance. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, PRC. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/eng/wjbzhd/202405/t20240527_11312272.html
61. Mladenov, N. S. (2021). China's Rise to Power in the Global Order: Grand Strategic Implications. Springer Nature.
62. Murphy, D. C. (2022). China's rise in the Global South: The Middle East, Africa, and Beijing's alternative world order. Stanford University Press.
63. New Development Bank. (n.d.). About the New Development Bank. https://www.ndb.int/
64. Nye, J. S. (2015). Is the American century over? Polity Press.
65. Nye, J. S. (2021). Soft power: the evolution of a concept. Journal of Political Power, 14(1), 196–208.
66. Organski, A. F. K. (1958). World politics. Alfred A. Knopf.
67. Organski, A. F., & Kugler, J. (1980). The war ledger. University of Chicago Press.
68. Özdemir, H. (2008). Uluslararasi İlişkilerde Güç: Çok Boyutlu Bir Değerlendirme. Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 63(3), 113-144.
69. Pollet, M., & Hendel, J. (2023, November 28). The West is on a world tour against Huawei. Politico. https://www.politico.eu/article/west-world-tour-huawei-china-telecom/
70. Qingguo, J. (2022, July 9). The UN and the international order. China-US Focus. https://www.chinausfocus.com/foreign-policy/the-un-and-the-international-order Respect for sovereignty, territorial integrity foundation of common security - Chinese envoy. (2022, August 23). Xinhua. https://english.news.cn/20220823/4cee3e16fa994e05b9b890e60efba755/c.html
71. Schweller, R. L., & Pu, X. (2011). After unipolarity: China's visions of international order in an era of US decline. International Security, 36(1), 41-72.
72. Shambaugh, D. (2015). China’s soft-power push: The search for respect. Foreign Affairs, 94(4), 99-107.
73. Şahin, M. (2021). Tianxia (All-Under-Heaven): An alternative system or a rose by another name? All Azimuth: A Journal of Foreign Policy and Peace, 10(2), 183-196.
74. Tammen, R. L., & Kugler, J. (2006). Power transition and China–US conflicts. The Chinese Journal of International Politics, 1(1), 35-55.
75. The Economist. (2020, November 5). China’s “dual-circulation” strategy means relying less on foreigners. The Economist. https://www.economist.com/china/2020/11/05/chinas-dual-circulation-strategy-means-relying-less-on-foreigners
76. The Global Civilization Initiative. (2023, March 16). International Department of the CPC Central Committee. https://www.idcpc.gov.cn/ztwy/hytl/gdheng/results/202303/t20230316_151401.html
77. Thibaut, K. (2023). Chinese discourse power: Capabilities and impact. Atlantic Council. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/Chinese-Discourse-Power-Capabilities-and-Impact-1.pdf
78. U.S. - China Economic and Security Review Commission. (2024). China’s facilitation of sanctions and export control evasion. https://www.uscc.gov/research/chinas-facilitation-sanctions-and-export-control-evasion United Nations General Assembly. (2005, September 15). World Summit Outcome Document (A/60/L.1, para. 138). http://responsibilitytoprotect.org/world%20summit%20outcome%20doc%202005(1).pdf
79. Varan, G., & Kabakcı, F. (2020, September 3). Uzmanlara göre Çin Orta Doğu'da “borç diplomasisiyle” etkinliğini artırmak istiyor. Anadolu Ajansı. https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/analiz/uzmanlara-gore-cin-orta-doguda-borc-diplomasisiyle-etkinligini-artirmak-istiyor/1961689
80. Wang, H. (2021). Bretton Woods 2.0? Rebuilding Global Governance for the Post-pandemic Era. In Consensus or Conflict? China and Globalization in the 21st Century (ss. 113-126). Springer Nature Singapore.
81. Wang, H. (2023). China’s participation in global governance amid major shifts. In China’s opportunities for development in an era of great global change (ss. 23-37). Springer Nature.
82. Wang, Z. (2023). Is unconditional foreign aid necessarily harmful? China’s foreign aid and human rights in Africa. China Review, 23(3), 101-130.
83. Ward, S. (2017). Status and the challenge of rising powers. Cambridge University Press.
84. Wendt, A. (1999). Social theory of international politics. Cambridge University Press.
85. Wilkins, T. S. (2008). Russo–Chinese strategic partnership: A new form of security cooperation?. Contemporary Security Policy, 29(2), 358-383.
86. Wivel, A., & Paul, T. V. (2020). Soft balancing, institutions, and peaceful change. Ethics & International Affairs, 34(4), 473-485.
87. Wu, L. (2023, July 11). Road to the Global Development Initiative. The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2023/07/chinas-switch-from-the-belt-and-road-to-the-global-development-initiative/
88. Wu, M. (2016). The China, Inc. challenge to global trade governance. Harvard International Law Journal, 57(2), 261-324.
89. Wu, S., & Pan, Q. (2019). Financial cooperative potential between China and Belt and Road countries. Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, 55(14), 3295-3310.
90. Wuttke, J. (2022). A roadmap to bolstering EU-China relations. In Transition and opportunity: Strategies from business leaders on making the most of China’s future (ss. 9-19). Springer Nature.
91. Xi expounds China's position on Syrian conflict, Venezuelan crisis, Iran's nuclear issue. (2019, June 5). Global Times. https://www.globaltimes.cn/content/1153164.shtml
92. Xi Jinping signals China will champion free trade if Trump builds barriers. (2017, January 18). The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/business/2017/jan/17/china-xi-jinping-china-free-trade-trump-globalisation-wef-davos
93. Xiaochun, Z. (2018). In pursuit of a community of shared future: China’s global activism in perspective. China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies, 4(1), 23-37.
94. Xinbo, W. (2013). Constructing peace-oriented power in Chinese diplomacy. China International Studies, 39, 20-32.
95. Xinquan, T., Rui, Z., & Sifan, Y. (2023). Impact of trade politicization on the multilateral trading system. Journal of WTO and China, 13(2), 3-27.
96. Xuetong, Y. (2013). New values for new international norms. China International Studies, 38(1), 15-28.
97. Yifu Lin, J. (2021a). What does China’s ‘dual circulations’ development paradigm mean and how it can be achieved? China Economic Journal, 14(2), 120-127.
98. Yifu Lin, J. (2021b). New structural economics: A framework of studying government and economics. Journal of Government and Economics, 2, 100014.
99. Yifu Lin, J., & Wang, X. (2022). Dual circulation: A new structural economics view of development. Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies, 20(4), 303-322.
100. Zhang, W. (2025). Why States Become Revisionists: A Literature Review. International Area Studies Review, 28(2), 103-112.
101. Zhang, Y. (2016). China and liberal hierarchies in global international society: power and negotiation for normative change. International Affairs, 92(4), 795-816.
102. Zhao, J., & Lee, J. (2021). The Belt and Road Initiative, Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, and the role of enterprise heterogeneity in China’s outward foreign direct investment. Post-Communist Economies, 33(4), 379-401.