Gambling Disorder: An Overview

Abstract

Psychopathologically, the concept of addiction in the terminology of psychiatry has gained a different perspective as a result of behavioral research under the influence of behavioral approaches. Neuroimaging, processing of neurobiological data has contributed to this change in the last 10 years, as the data on comorbidity, inheritance, tolerance, withdrawal symptoms and treatment outcomes among addictions show similarities. Gambling addiction was also affected by this change and new perspectives on the etiology, diagnostic criteria and treatment were developed. With the recently published Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), gambling addiction was included in the category of addictions and under the heading "Non-substance related disorder" in the category "Drug Related and Addictive Disorders". This new point of view is likely to be gambling addiction, perhaps leading to the fact that behavioral addictions such as internet use, playing video games, eating and shopping can be evaluated within the context of addiction, and will develop a new perspective on behavioral addictions. The aim of this article is to review gambling disorder within the axis of DSM-5 and assess it from the viewpoint of diagnosis, epidemiology, etiology, comorbidity and treatment. 

Keywords

• gambling,addiction,diagnosis,comorbidity,treatment

Kumar Oynama Bozukluğu: Genel Bir Bakış

Öz

Psikiyatri terminolojisinde bağımlılık kavramına psikopatolojik anlamda bakış, davranışçı yaklaşımların etkisinde ve bu konuda yapılan davranışçı araştırmalar sonucunda farklı bir perspektif kazanmıştır. Bağımlılıklar arasında ki komorbidite, kalıtım, tölerans, yoksunluk belirtileri ve tedavi sonuçları ile ilgili verilerin benzerlikler göstermesi ve nörogörüntüleme, nörobiyolojik verilerin işlenmesi son 10 yılda bu değişime katkı sağlamıştır. Kumar bağımlılığı da bu değişimden etkilenmiş ve gerek etiyoloji, tanısal ölçütler ve gerekse de tedavi açısından yeni bakış açıları geliştirilmiştir. Son yayınlanan Amerikan Psikiyatri Birliğinin Ruhsal Bozuklukların Tanısal ve Sayımsal El Kitabı 5. Baskısı (DSM-5) ile kumar bağımlılığı, bağımlılıklar kategorisine dahil edilmiş ve “Madde ile İlişkili ve Bağımlılık Bozuklukları” kategorisinde “Madde ile ilişkili olmayan bozukluk” başlığı altına alınmıştır. Bu yeni bakış açısı kumar bağımlılığında olduğu gibi belki de ileri süreçlerde internet kullanımı, video oyunu oynama, yemek yeme ve alışveriş gibi davranışsal bağımlılıkların da bağımlılık kapsamında değerlendirilebilmesi olanağını sağlayacak ve davranışsal bağımlılıklara tanısal açıdan yeni bir bakış açısı geliştirecektir. Bu yazıda kumar bağımlılığını DSM-5 ekseninde tanı, epidemiyoloji, etiyoloji, komorbidite ve tedavi açısından gözden geçirilmesi amaçlanmıştır. 

Anahtar Kelimeler

• kumar,bağımlılık,tanı,komorbidite

Kaynakça

1. Potenza MN. Should addictive disorders include non-substance-related conditions? Addiction. 2006; 101:142-151.
2. Frascella J, Potenza MN, Brown LL, Childress AR. Shared brain vulnerabilities open the way for nonsubstance addictions: carving addiction at a new joint? Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010; 1187:294-315.
3. Karim R, Chaudhri P. Behavioral addictions: an overview. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2012;44:5-17.
4. Holden C. Behavioral addictions debut in proposed DSM-V. Science. 2010; 327:935.
5. Shaffer HJ, LaPlante DA, LaBrie R, et al. Toward a syndrome model of addiction: multiple expressions, common etiology. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2004; 12:367-374.
6. Slutske WS. Natural recovery and treatment-seeking in pathological gambling: results of two national surveys. Am J Psychiatry. 2006; 163:297–302.
7. Yau YH, Potenza MN. Gambling disorder and other behavioral addictions: recognition and treatment. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2015 Mar-Apr; 23(2):134-146.
8. Wareham JD, Potenza MN. Pathological gambling and substance use disorders. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2010; 36:242-247.

9. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013.
10. Clark L. Disordered gambling: the evolving concept of behavioral addiction. Ann.N.Y. Acad. Sci. 2014; 1327: 46-61.
11. Bechara A. Risky business: emotion, decision-making, and addiction. J. Gambl. Stud. 2003; 19:23-51.
12. Verdejo-García A, Lawrence AJ, Clark L. Impulsivity as a vulnerability marker for substance-use disorders: review of findings from high-risk research, problem gamblers and genetic association studies. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2008; 32:777-810.
13. Koob GF, Le Moal M. Neurobiology of Addiction. Amsterdam: Academic Press; 2005.
14. Potenza MN. Non-substance addictive behaviors in the context of DSM-5. Addict Behav. 2014; 39:1-2.
15. Shaffer HJ, Hall MN, Vander Bilt J. Estimating the prevalence of disordered gambling behavior in the United States and Canada: a research synthesis. Am J Public Health. 1999; 89:1369-1376.
16. Petry NM, Stinson FS, Grant BF. Comorbidity of DSM-IV pathological gambling and other psychiatric disorders: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005; 66:564-574.
17. Lorains FK, Cowlishaw S, Thomas SA. Prevalence of comorbid disorders in problem and pathological gambling: systematic review and meta-analysis of population surveys. Addiction. 2011; 106:490-498.
18. Hodgins DC, Stea JN, Grant JE. Gambling disorders. Lancet. 2011; 378:1874-1884.
19. Bland RC, Newman SC, Orn H, et al. Epidemiology of pathological gambling in Edmonton. Canadian journal of psychiatry Revue canadienne de psychiatrie. 1993; 38:108-112.
20. Cunningham-Williams RM, Cottler LB, Compton WM, et al. Taking chances: problem gamblers and mental health disorders--results from the St. Louis Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study. American journal of public health. 1998; 88:1093-1096.
21. Martins SS, Storr CL, Lee GP, et al. Environmental influences associated with gambling in young adulthood. Journal of urban health: bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine. 2013; 90:130-140.
22. Volberg RA. The prevalence and demographics of pathological gamblers: implications for public health. American journal of public health. 1994; 84:237-241.
23. Welte JW, Barnes GM, Wieczorek WF, et al. Risk factors for pathological gambling. Addictive behaviors. 2004; 29:323-335.
24. Browne BA, Brown DJ. Predictors of lottery gambling among American college students. The Journal of social psychology. 1994; 134:339-347.
25. Okuda M, Liu W, Cisewski JA, et al. Gambling Disorder and Minority Populations: Prevalence and Risk Factors. Current Addiction Reports. 2016; 3:280-292.
26. Ibanez A, Perez de Castro I, Fernandez-Piqueras J, et al. Pathological gambling and DNA polymorphic markers at MAO-A and MAO-B genes. Molecular psychiatry. 2000; 5:105-109.
27. Slutske WS, Eisen S, Xian H, et al. A twin study of the association between pathological gambling and antisocial personality disorder. Journal of abnormal psychology. 2001; 110:297-308.
28. Petry NM, Steinberg KLC. Women’s Problem Gambling Research. Childhood maltreatment in male and female treatment-seeking pathological gamblers. Psychology of addictive behaviors: journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors. 2005; 19:226-229.
29. Blanco C, Myers J, Kendler KS. Gambling, disordered gambling and their association with major depression and substance use: a web-based cohort and twin-sibling study. Psychological medicine. 2012; 42:497-508.
30. Andreassen CS, Billieux J, Griffiths MD, et al. The relationship between technological addictions and symptoms of psychiatric disorders: A large-scale cross-sectional study. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 2016; 30(2):252-262.
31. Vacaru MA, Shepherd RM, Sheridan J. New Zealand youth and their relationships with mobile phone technology. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. 2014; 12(5): 572-584.
32. Blanco C, Hasin DS, Petry N, et al. Sex differences in subclinical and DSM-IV pathological gambling: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Psychological medicine. 2006; 36:943-953.
33. Potenza MN, Steinberg MA, McLaughlin SD, et al. Gender-related differences in the characteristics of problem gamblers using a gambling helpline. Am J Psychiatry. 2001; 158:1500-1505.
34. Odlaug BL, Marsh PJ, Kim SW, et al. Strategic vs nonstrategic gambling: characteristics of pathological gamblers based on gambling preference. Annals of clinical psychiatry : official journal of the American Academy of Clinical Psychiatrists. 2011; 23:105-112.
35. Ledgerwood DM, Petry NM. Psychological experience of gambling and subtypes of pathological gamblers. Psychiatry research. 2006; 144:17-27.
36. Verdura Vizcaino EJ, Fernandez-Navarro P, Petry N, et al. Differences between early-onset pathological gambling and later-onset pathological gambling: data from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC) Addiction. 2014; 109:807-813.
37. Moghaddam JF, Yoon G, Dickerson DL, et al. Suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in five groups with different severities of gambling: Findings from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. The American journal on addictions / American Academy of Psychiatrists in Alcoholism and Addictions. 2015; 24:292-298.
38. Petry NM, Kiluk BD. Suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in treatment-seeking pathological gamblers. The Journal of nervous and mental disease. 2002; 190:462-469.
39. el-Guebaly N, Mudry T, Zohar J, et al. Compulsive features in behavioural addictions: the case of pathological gambling. Addiction. 2012; 107:1726-1734.
40. Yau Y, Yip S, Potenza MN. Understanding “behavioral addictions:” insights from research. In: Fiellin DA, Miller SC, Saitz R, editors. The ASAM principles of addiction medicine. 5. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer; 2014.
41. Leeman RF, Potenza MN. A targeted review of the neurobiology and genetics of behavioral addictions: an emerging area of research. Can J Psychiatry. 2013; 58:260-273.
42. Brewer JA, Potenza MN. The neurobiology and genetics of impulse control disorders: relationships to drug addictions. Biochem Pharmacol. 2008; 75:63-75.
43. Mazhari S. Association between problematic internet use and impulse control disorders among Iranian university students. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2012; 15:270-273.
44. Dowling NA, Brown M. Commonalities in the psychological factors associated with problem gambling and Internet dependence. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc. 2010; 13:437-441.
45. Kessler RC, Hwang I, LaBrie R, et al. DSM-IV pathological gambling in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Psychol Med. 2008; 38:1351-1360.
46. Blaszczynski A, Nower L. A pathways model of problem and pathological gambling. Addiction. 2002; 97:487-499.
47. Chou KL, Afifi TO. Disordered (pathologic or problem) gambling and axis I psychiatric disorders: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Am J Epidemiol. 2011; 173:1289-1297.
48. Pilver CE, Libby DJ, Hoff RA, Potenza MN. Gender differences in the relationship between gambling problems and the incidence of substance-use disorders in a nationally representative population sample. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013; 133:204-211.
49. Pilver CE, Potenza MN. Increased incidence of cardiovascular conditions among older adults with pathological gambling features in a prospective study. J Addict Med. 2013; 7:387-393.
50. Estévez A, Herrero D, Sarabia I, Jauregui P. (). El papel mediador de la regulación emocional entre el juego patológico, uso abusivo de Internet y videojuegos y la sintomatología disfuncional en jóvenes y adolescentes [Mediating role of emotional regulation between impulsive behavior in gambling, Internet and videogame abuse, and dysfunctional symptomatology in young adults and adolescents]. Adicciones. 2014; 26(4):282-290.
51. Schreiber LN, Grant JE, Odlaug BL. Emotion regulation and impulsivity in young adults. Journal of Psychiatric Research. 2012; 46(5): 651-658.
52. Blaszczynski A. Pathological gambling and obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders. Psychological reports. 1999; 84:107-113.
53. van Holst RJ, van den Brink W, Veltman DJ, et al. Brain imaging studies in pathological gambling. Current psychiatry reports. 2010; 12:418-425.
54. Güz G, Güz HO. Patolojik kumar bağımlılığında davranışsal inhibisyon. Current Addiction Research 2017; 1(2):65-71.
55. Lawrence AJ, Luty J. Bogdan NA, et al. Impulsivity and response inhibition in alchol dependence and problem gambling. Psychopharmacology. 2009; 207(1);163-172.
56. Potenza MN. The neural bases of cognitive processes in gambling disorder; Cogn Sci. 2014; 18(8):429-438.
57. Yang Y, Zhong X, Wu D, et al. Positive association between trait impulsivity and high gambling-related cognitive biases among college students. Psychiatry Res. 2016; 243:71-74.
58. Parke A, Harris A. Understanding Within-Session Loss-Chasing: An Experimental Investigation of the Impact of Stake Size on Cognitive Control. J Gambl Study 2016; 32:721-735.
59. Sharma L, Markon KE, Clark LA. Toward a theory of distinct types of “impulsive” behaviors: A meta-analysis of self-report and behavioral measures. Psychol. Bull. 2014; 140:374-408.
60. Lawrence AJ, Luty J, Bogdan NA, et al. Problem gamblers share deficits in impulsive decision-making with alcohol-dependent individuals. Addiction. 2009; 104:1006-1015.
61. Wardell JD, Quilty LC. Motivational pathways from reward sensitivity and punishment sensitivity to gambling frequency and gambling-related problems. Psychol Addict Behav. 2015; 29(4):1022-1230.
62. Leeman RF, Potenza MN. Similarities and differences between pathological gambling and substance use disorders: a focus on impulsivity and compulsivity. Pyschopharmacology. 2012; 219: 469-490.
63. Yau YHC, Crowley MJ, Mayes LC, Potenza MN. Are Internet use and video-game-playing addictive behaviors? Biological, clinical and public health implications for youths and adults. Minerva Psichiatr. 2012; 53:153-170.
64. Tavares H, Zilberman ML, Hodgins DC, el-Guebaly N. Comparison of craving between pathological gamblers and alcoholics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2005; 29:1427-1431.
65. Lejuez CW, et al. Differences in impulsivity and sexual risk behavior among inner-city crack/cocaine users and heroin users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005; 77:169-175.
66. Odlaug BL, Chamberlain SR, Kim SW, et al. A neurocognitive comparison of cognitive flexibility and response inhibition in gamblers with varying degrees of clinical severity. Psychol Med. 2011; 41:2111-2119.
67. Goudriaan AE, Oosterlaan J, De Beurs E, Van den Brink W. The role of self-reported impulsivity and reward sensitivity versus neurocognitive measures of disinhibition and decision-making in the prediction of relapse in pathological gamblers. Psychol Med. 2008; 38:41-50.
68. Goudriaan AE, Oosterlaan J, de Beurs E, van den Brink W. Decision making in pathological gambling: a comparison between pathological gamblers, alcohol dependents, persons with Tourette syndrome, and normal controls. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res. 2005; 23:137-151.
69. Everitt BJ, Robbins TW. Neural systems of reinforcement for drug addiction: from actions to habits to compulsion. Nat Neurosci. 2005; 8:1481-1489.
70. Reynolds B. A review of delay-discounting research with humans: relations to drug use and gambling. Behav Pharmacol. 2006;17:651-667.
71. Mitchell MR. MNP Addictions and personality traits: impulsivity and related constructs. Curr Behav Neurosci Rep. 2014; 1:1-12.
72. Yazıcı K, Yazıcı A. Dürtüselliğin Nöroanatomik ve Nörokimyasal Temelleri. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar 2010; 2(2):254-80.
73. Petry NM. Discounting of probabilistic rewards is associated with gambling abstinence in treatment-seeking pathological gamblers. J Abnorm Psychol. 2012; 121:151-159.
74. Martins SS, Wall MM, Eisenberg R, et al. Trajectories of Sensation Seeking Among Puerto Rican Children and Youth. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2015; 54:1042-1050.
75. Nower L, Derevensky JL, Gupta R. The relationship of impulsivity, sensation seeking, coping, and substance use in youth gamblers. Psychology of addictive behaviors : journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors. 2004; 18:49-55.
76. Boog M, Höppener P. Cognitive Inflexibility in Gamblers is Primariliy Present in Reward-Related Decision Making. Front Hum Neurosci. 2014; 13; 8:569.
77. Van Holst RJ, Van Holstein M, Van den Brink W, et al. Response Inhibition during Cue Reactivity in Problem Gamblers: An fMRI Study. PLos One 7(3): c30909.
78. Navas J. Torres A. Nonmonetary Decision-Making Indices Discriminate Between Different Behavioral Components of Ganbling. J Gambl Stud. 2015; 31:1545-1560.
79. Balconi M, Finocchiaro R. Reward Sensitivity (Behavioral Activation System), Cognitive, and Metacognitive Control in Gambling Behavior: Evidences From Behavioral, Feedback-Related Negativitiy, and P300 Effect; J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2015; 27(3):219-227.
80. Grant J, Chamberlain SR. Impulsive action and impulsive choice across substance and behavioral addictions: Cause or consequence? Addictive Behaviors 2014; 39:1632-1639.
81. Ladouceur R, Walker M. A cognitive perspective on gambling. In: Salkovskis PM, editor. Trends in Cognitive and Behavioral Therapies. Chichester, UK: Wiley & Sons; 1996. pp. 89–120.
82. Clark L. Decision-making during gambling: an integration of cognitive and psychobiological approaches. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. 2010; 365:319-330.
83. Raylu N, Oei TP. The Gambling Related Cognitions Scale (GRCS): development, confirmatory factor validation and psychometric properties. Addiction. 2004; 99:757-769.
84. Steenbergh TA, Meyers AW, May RK, Whelan JP. Development and validation of the Gamblers’ Beliefs Questionnaire. Psychol. Addict. Behav. 2002; 16:143-149.
85. Michalczuk R, Bowden-Jones H, Verdejo-Garcia A, Clark L. Impulsivity and cognitive distortions in pathological gamblers attending the UK National Problem Gambling Clinic: a preliminary report. Psychol. Med. 2011; 41:2625-2635.
86. Emond MS, Marmurek HH. Gambling related cognitions mediate the association between thinking style and problem gambling severity. J. Gambl. Stud. 2010; 26:257-267.
87. Miller NV, Currie SR. A Canadian population level analysis of the roles of irrational gambling cognitions and risky gambling practices as correlates of gambling intensity and pathological gambling. J. Gambl. Stud. 2008; 24:257–274.
88. Ladouceur R, Sylvain C, Boutin C, et al. Cognitive treatment of pathological gambling. The Journal of nervous and mental disease. 2001; 189:774-780.
89. Brevers D, He Q, Xue G, et al. Neural correlates of the impact of prior outcomes on subsequent monetary decision-making in frequent poker players. Biological psychology. 2017; 124:30-38.
90. Joukhador J, Maccallum F, Blaszczynski A. Differences in cognitive distortions between problem and social gamblers. Psychological reports. 2003; 92:1203-1214.
91. Campbell-Meiklejohn DK, Woolrich MW, Passingham RE, et al. Knowing when to stop: the brain mechanisms of chasing losses. Biological psychiatry. 2008; 63:293-300.
92. Langer EJ. The illusion of control. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 1975; 32:311-328.
93. Stefan S, David D. Recent developments in the experimental investigation of the illusion of control. A meta-analytic review. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 2013; 43:377-386.
94. Davis D, Sundahl I, Lesbo M. Illusory personal control as a determinant of bet size and type in casino craps games. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 2000; 30:1224-1242.
95. Clark L, Lawrence AJ, Astley-Jones F, Gray N. Gambling near-misses enhance motivation to gamble and recruit win-related brain circuitry. Neuron. 2009; 61:481-490.
96. Martinez F, Bonnefon JF, Hoskens J. Active involvement, not illusory control, increases risk taking in a gambling game. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 2009; 62:1063-1071.
97. Potenza MN, Koran LM, Pallanti S. The relationship between impulse-control disorders and obsessive-compulsive disorder: a current understanding and future research directions. Psychiatr Res. 2009; 170:22-31.
98. Hollander E, Wong CM. Obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders. J Clin Psychiatry. 1995; 56 (suppl 4):3-6.
99. Odlaug BL, Chamberlain SR, Grant JE. Motor inhibition and cognitive flexibility in pathologic skin picking. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2010; 34:208-211.
100. Wise RA . Dopamine, learning and motivation. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2004; 5:483-494.
101. Reuter J, Raedler T, Rose M, et al. Pathological gambling is linked to reduced activation of the mesolimbic reward system. Nat. Neurosci. 2005; 8:147-148.
102. Leyton M, Vezina P. On cue: striatal ups and downs in addictions. Biol. Psychiatry. 2012; 72:21-22.
103. Romanczuk-Seiferth N, Koehler S, Dreesen C, et al. Pathological gambling and alcohol dependence: neural disturbances in reward and loss avoidance processing. Addict. Biol. 2015; 20(3):557-569.
104. Van Holst RJ, Veltman DJ, Büchel C, et al. Distorted expectancy coding in problem gambling: is the addictive in the anticipation? Biol. Psychiatry. 2012; 71:741-748.
105. Chase HW, Clark L. Gambling severity predicts midbrain response to near-miss outcomes. J. Neurosci. 2010; 30:6180-6187.
106. Koob GF, Volkow ND. Neurocircuitry of addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010; 35:217-238.
107. St Onge JR, Floresco SB. Dopaminergic modulation of risk-based decision making. Neuropsychopharmacology: official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology. 2009; 34:681-697.
108. Parker JG, Wanat MJ, Soden ME, et al. Attenuating GABA(A) receptor signaling in dopamine neurons selectively enhances reward learning and alters risk preference in mice. The Journal of neuroscience: the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 2011; 31:17103-17112.
109. Weinstein AM. Computer and video game addiction—a comparison between game users and non-game users. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2010; 36:268-276.
110. Farde L, Nordström AL, Wiesel FA, et al. Positron emission tomographic analysis of central D1 and D2 dopamine receptor occupancy in patients treated with classical neuroleptics and clozapine. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992; 49:538-544.
111. Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, et al. Imaging endogenous dopamine competition with [11C]raclopride in the human brain. Synapse. 1994; 16:255-262.
112. Linnet J, Møller A, Peterson E, et al. Dopamine release in ventral striatum during Iowa Gambling Task performance is associated with increased excitement levels in pathological gambling. Addiction. 2011; 106:383-390.
113. Weintraub D, Koester J, Potenza MN, et al. Impulse control disorders in parkinson disease: A cross-sectional study of 3090 patients. Arch Neurol. 2010; 67:589-595.
114. Voon V, Sohr M, Lang AE, et al. Impulse control disorders in Parkinson disease: a multicenter case-control study. Ann Neurol. 2011; 69:986-996.
115. Leeman RF, Billingsley BE, Potenza MN. Impulse control disorders in Parkinson’s Disease: background and update on prevention and management. Neurodegener Dis Manag. 2012; 2:389-400.
116. McElroy SL, Nelson E, Welge J, et al. Olanzapine in the treatment of pathological gambling: a negative randomized placebo-controlled trial. Journal Clin Psychiatry. 2008; 69:433-440.
117. Fong T, Kalechstein A, Bernhard B, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of olanzapine for the treatment of video poker pathological gamblers. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2008; 89:298-303.
118. Potenza MN. How central is dopamine to pathological gambling or gambling disorder? Front Behav Neurosci. 2013; 7:206.
119. Boileau I, Payer D, Chugani B, et al. In vivo evidence for greater amphetamine-induced dopamine release in pathological gambling: a positron emission tomography study with [11C]-(+)-PHNO. Mol Psychiatry. 2014; 19:1305-1313.
120. Cocker PJ, Le Foll B, Rogers RD, Winstanley CA. A selective role for dopamine D4 receptors in modulating reward expectancy in a rodent slot machine task. Biol Psychiatry. 2014; 75:817-824.
121. Linnet J, Moller A, Peterson E, et al. Inverse association between dopaminergic neurotransmission and Iowa Gambling Task performance in pathological gamblers and healthy controls. Scand J Psychol. 2011; 52:28-34.
122. Nordin C, Eklundh T. Altered CSF 5–HIAA disposition in pathological male gamblers. CNS Spectr. 1999; 4:25-33.
123. de Castro IP, Ibanez A, Saiz–Ruiz J, Fernandez–Piqueras J. Concurrent positive association between pathological gambling and functional DNA polymorphisms at the MAO-A and the 5-HT transporter genes. Mol Psychiatry. 2002; 7:927-928.
124. Potenza MN, Walderhaug E, Henry S, et al. Serotonin 1B receptor imaging in pathological gambling. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2013; 14:139-145.
125. Sullivan EV, Pfefferbaum A. Neurocircuitry in alcoholism: a substrate of disruption and repair. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2005; 180:583-594.
126. Wilson JM, Kalasinsky KS, Levey AI, et al. Striatal dopamine nerve terminal markers in human, chronic methamphetamine users. Nat. Med. 1996; 2:699-703.
127. Jentsch JD, Olausson P, De La Garza R 2nd, Taylor JR. Impairments of reversal learning and response perseveration after repeated, intermittent cocaine administrations to monkeys. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2002; 26:183-190.
128. Cavedini P, Riboldi G, Keller R, et al. Frontal lobe dysfunction in pathological gambling patients. Biological Psychiatry 2002; 51:334-341.
129. Dannon PN, Shoenfeld N. Pathological gambling: an impulse control disorder? Measurement of impulsivity using neurocognitive tests. Isr Med Assoc J 2010; 12(4):238-248.
130. Ren Y, Fang J, Lv J. Assessing the effects of cocaine dependence and pathological gambling using group-wisw sparse representation of natural stimulus FMRI data. Brain Imaging and Behaviour. 2017; 11(4):1179-1191.
131. Balodis IM, Kober H, Worhunsky PD, et al. Diminished frontostriatal activity during processing of monetary rewards and losses in pathological gambling. Biol Psychiatry. 2012; 71:749-757.
132. Choi J-S, Shin Y-C, Jung WH, et al. Altered brain activity during reward anticipation in pathological gambling and obsessive-compulsive disorder. PLoS One. 2012; 7:e45938.
133. Tanabe J, Thompson L, Claus E, et al. Prefrontal cortex activity is reduced in gambling and nongambling substance users during decision-making. Hum Brain Mapp. 2007; 28:1276-1286.
134. Power Y, Goodyear B, Crockford D. Neural correlates of pathological gamblers preference for immediate rewards during the iowa gambling task: an fMRI study. J Gambl Stud. 2012; 28(4):623-636.
135. Potenza MN, Steinberg MA, Skudlarski P, et al. Gambling urges in pathological gambling: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003; 60:828-836.
136. Goudriaan AE, De Ruiter MB, Van Den Brink W, et al. Brain activation patterns associated with cue reactivity and craving in abstinent problem gamblers, heavy smokers and healthy controls: an fMRI study. Addiction Biol. 2010; 15:491-503.
137. Crockford DN, Goodyear B, Edwards J, et al. Cue-induced brain activity in pathological gamblers. Biol Psychiatry. 2005; 58:787-795.
138. van Holst RJ, de Ruiter MB, van den Brink W, et al. A voxel-based morphometry study comparing problem gamblers, alcohol abusers, and healthy controls. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012; 124:142-148.
139. Joutsa J, Saunavaara J, Parkkola R, et al. Extensive abnormality of brain white matter integrity in pathological gambling. Psychiatry Res. 2011; 194:340-346.
140. Rahman AS, Xu J, Potenza MN. Hippocampal and amygdalar volumetric differences in pathological gambling: a preliminary study of the associations with the behavioral inhibition system. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2014; 39:738-745.
141. Wrase J, Schlagenhauf F, Kienast T, et al. Dysfunction of reward processing correlates with alcohol craving in detoxified alcoholics. Neuroimage. 2007; 35:787-794.
142. Hommer DW, Bjork JM, Gilman JM. Imaging brain response to reward in addictive disorders. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2011; 1216:50-61.
143. Smith JL, Mattick RP, Jamadar SD. Deficits in behavioural inhibition in substance abuse and addiction: a meta-analysis. Drug Alchol Depend. 2014; 145:1-33.
144. Baarendse PJ, Counatte DS. Early social experience is critical fort he development of cognitive control and dopamine modulation of prefrontal cortex function. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2013; 38(8):1485-1494.
145. Leppink EW, Redden SA. Cognitive flexibility correlates with gambling severity in young adults, J Psychiatr Res. 2016; 81:9-15.
146. Potenza MN, Leung HC, Blumberg, et al. An FMRI Stroop task study of ventromedial prefrontal cortical function in pathological gamblers. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160(11): 1990-1994.
147. Balconi M, Finocchiaro R. Reward bias and lateralization in gambling behavior: behavioral activation system and alpha band analysis; Psychiatry Research 2014; 219:570-576.
148. Nautiyal KM, Okuda M, Hen R, Blanco C. Gambling disorder: an integrative rewiew of animal and human studies. Ann.N.Y. Acad. Sci. 2017; 1394: 106-127.
149. Eisen SA, Slutske WS, Lyons MJ, et al. The genetics of pathological gambling. Seminars in clinical neuropsychiatry. 2001; 6:195-204.
150. Slutske WS, Ellingson JM, Richmond-Rakerd LS, et al. Shared genetic vulnerability for disordered gambling and alcohol use disorder in men and women: evidence from a national community-based Australian Twin Study. Twin Res Hum Genet. 2013; 16:525-534.
151. Slutske WS, Zhu G, Meier MH, Martin NG. Genetic and environmental influences on disordered gambling in men and women. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010; 67:624-630.
152. Comings DE, Rosenthal RJ, Lesieur HR, et al. A study of the dopamine D2 receptor gene in pathological gambling. Pharmacogenetics. 1996; 6:223-234.
153. Lobo DS, Souza RP, Tong RP, et al. Association of functional variants in the dopamine D2–like receptors with risk for gambling behaviour in healthy Caucasian subjects. Biol Psychol. 2010; 85:33-37.
154. de Castro IP, Ibánez A, Saiz–Ruiz J, Fernández–Piqueras J. Genetic contribution to pathological gambling: possible association between a functional DNA polymorphism at the serotonin transporter gene (5–HTT) and affected men. Pharmacogenet Genomics. 1999; 9:397-400.
155. Lobo DS, Aleksandrova L, Knight J, et al. Addiction-related genes in gambling disorders: new insights from parallel human and pre-clinical models. Molecular psychiatry. 2015; 20:1002-1010.
156. Comings DE, Gonzalez N, Wu S, et al. Studies of the 48 bp repeat polymorphism of the DRD4 gene in impulsive, compulsive, addictive behaviors: Tourette syndrome, ADHD, pathological gambling, and substance abuse. American journal of medical genetics. 1999; 88:358-368.
157. Grant JE, Leppink EW, Redden SA, et al. COMT genotype, gambling activity, and cognition. J Psychiatr Res. 2015; 68:371-376.
158. Wilson D, da Silva Lobo DS, Tavares H, et al. Family-based association analysis of serotonin genes in pathological gambling disorder: evidence of vulnerability risk in the 5HT-2A receptor gene. Journal of molecular neuroscience: MN. 2013; 49:550-553.
159. Acheson A, Vincent AS, Kristen H, et al. Greater discounting of delayed rewards in young adults with family histories of alcohol and drug use disorders: studies from the Oklahoma family health patterns project. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 2011; 35:1607-1613.
160. Vitaro F, Arseneault L, Tremblay RE. Impulsivity predicts problem gambling in low SES adolescent males. Addiction. 1999; 94:565-575.
161. Slutske WS, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Poulton R. Personality and problem gambling: a prospective study of a birth cohort of young adults. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2005; 62:769-775.
162. Slutske WS, Moffitt TE, Poulton R, Caspi A. Undercontrolled temperament at age 3 predicts disordered gambling at age 32: a longitudinal study of a complete birth cohort. Psychol. Sci. 2012; 23:510-516.
163. Suurvali H, Cordingley J, Hodgins DC, et al. Barriers to seeking help for gambling problems: a review of the empirical literature. Journal of gambling studies / co-sponsored by the National Council on Problem Gambling and Institute for the Study of Gambling and Commercial Gaming. 2009; 25:407-424.
164. Krystal JH, Cramer JA, Krol WF, et al. Naltrexone in the treatment of alcohol dependence. New Engl J Med. 2001; 345:1734-1739.
165. O’Brien C, Thomas McLellan A. Myths about the treatment of addiction. Lancet. 1996; 347:237-240.
166. Kim SW, Grant JE, Adson DE, Shin YC. Double-blind naltrexone and placebo comparison study in the treatment of pathological gambling. Biol Psychiatry. 2001; 49:914-921.
167. Grant JE, Kim SW, Hartman BK. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the opiate antagonist naltrexone in the treatment of pathological gambling urges. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008; 69:783-789.
168. Dannon PN, Lowengrub K, Musin E, et al. 12-month follow-up study of drug treatment in pathological gamblers: a primary outcome study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2007; 27:620-624.
169. Grant JE, Odlaug BL, Potenza MN, Hollander E, Kim SW. Nalmefene in the treatment of pathological gambling: multicentre, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Br J Psychiatry. 2010; 197:330-331.
170. Grant JE, Potenza MN, Hollander E, et al. Multicenter investigation of the opioid antagonist nalmefene in the treatment of pathological gambling. Am J Psychiatry. 2006; 163:303-312.
171. Grant JE, Kim SW, Hollander E, Potenza MN. Predicting response to opiate antagonists and placebo in the treatment of pathological gambling. Psychopharmacology. 2008; 200:521-527.
172. Barbano MF, Cador M. Opioids for hedonic experience and dopamine to get ready for it. Psychopharmacology. 2007; 191:497-506.
173. Petrovic P, Pleger B, Seymour B, et al. Blocking central opiate function modulates hedonic impact and anterior cingulate response to rewards and losses. The Journal of neuroscience: the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 2008; 28:10509-10516.
174. Bartley CA, Bloch MH. Meta-analysis: pharmacological treatment of pathological gambling. Expert review of neurotherapeutics. 2013; 13:887-894.
175. Hollander E, DeCaria CM, Finkell JN, Begaz T, et al. A randomized double-blind fluvoxamine/placebo crossover trial in pathologic gambling. Biol Psychiatry. 2000; 47:813-817.
176. Kim SW, Grant JE, Adson DE, et al. A double-blind placebo-controlled study of the efficacy and safety of paroxetine in the treatment of pathological gambling. J Clin Psychiatry. 2002; 63:501-507.
177. Hollander E, Pallanti S, Allen A, et al. Does sustained-release lithium reduce impulsive gambling and affective instability versus placebo in pathological gamblers with bipolar spectrum disorders? The American journal of psychiatry. 2005; 162:137-145.
178. Pallanti S, Haznedar MM, Hollander E, et al. Basal Ganglia activity in pathological gambling: a fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography study. Neuropsychobiology. 2010; 62:132-138.
179. Grant JE, Kim SW, Odlaug BL. N-acetyl cysteine, a glutamate-modulating agent, in the treatment of pathological gambling: a pilot study. Biol Psychiatry. 2007; 62:652-657.
180. Grant JE, Odlaug BL, Chamberlain SR, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of N-acetylcysteine plus imaginal desensitization for nicotine-dependent pathological gamblers. J Clin Psychiatry. 2014 ;75:39-45.
181. Berlin HA, Braun A, Simeon D, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of topiramate for pathological gambling. The world journal of biological psychiatry : the official journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry. 2013; 14:121-128.
182. Tolin DF. Is cognitive-behavioral therapy more effective than other therapies? : a meta-analytic review. Clin Psychol Rev. 2010; 30:710-720.
183. Petry NM, Ammerman Y, Bohl J, et al. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for pathological gamblers. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2006; 74:555-567.
184. Petry NM. Pathological gambling: etiology, comorbidity, and treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2005.
185. Pallesen S, Mitsem M, Kvale G, et al. Outcome of psychological treatments of pathological gambling: a review and meta-analysis. Addiction. 2005; 100:1412-1422.
186. Cowlishaw S, Merkouris S, Dowling N, et al. Psychological therapies for pathological and problem gambling. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012; 11:CD008937.
187. Petry NM, Litt MD, Kadden R, et al. Do coping skills mediate the relationship between cognitive-behavioral therapy and reductions in gambling in pathological gamblers? Addiction (Abingdon, England) 2007; 102:1280-1291.
188. Potenza MN, I, Balodis M, Franco CA, et al. Neurobiological considerations in understanding behavioral treatments for pathological gambling. Psychology of addictive behaviors: journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors. 2013; 27:380-392.
189. Potenza MN, Sofuoglu M, Carroll KM, et al. Neuroscience of behavioral and pharmacological treatments for addictions. Neuron. 2011; 69: 695-712.
190. Toneatto T, Gunaratne M. Does the Treatment of Cognitive Distortions Improve Clinical Outcomes for Problem Gambling? Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy. 2009; 39:221-229.
191. Carlbring P, Jonsson J, Josephson H, et al. Motivational interviewing versus cognitive behavioral group therapy in the treatment of problem and pathological gambling: a randomized controlled trial. Cogn Behav Ther. 2010; 39:92-103.
192. Diskin KM, Hodgins DC. A randomized controlled trial of a single session motivational intervention for concerned gamblers. Behav Res Ther. 2009; 47:382-388.
193. Petry NM, Weinstock J, Morasco BJ, et al. Brief motivational interventions for college student problem gamblers. Addiction (Abingdon, England) 2009; 104:1569-1578.
194. Gamblers Anonymous; Recovery Program. 2013 http://www.gamblersanonnymous.org
195. Petry NM. Gamblers anonymous and cognitive-behavioral therapies for pathological gamblers. J Gambl Stud. 2005;21:27-33.
196. Grant JE, Odlaug BL. National Center for Responsible Gaming. What clinicians need to know about gambling disorders. Vol. 7. Washington, DC: NCRG; 2012. Psychosocial interventions for gambling disorders; pp. 38–52. Increasing the odds: a series dedicated to understanding gambling disorders. At http://www.ncrg.org/resources/monographs.
197. Volberg RA, Gupta R, Griffiths MD, Olason DT, et al. An international perspective on youth gambling prevalence studies. Int J Adolesc Med Health. 2010; 22:3-38.
198. Welte JW, Barnes GM, Tidwell M-CO, Hoffman JH. The association of form of gambling with problem gambling among American youth. Psychol Addict Behav. 2009; 23:105.
199. LaPlante DA, Nelson SE, LaBrie RA, Shaffer HJ. Disordered gambling, type of gambling and gambling involvement in the British Gambling Prevalence Survey 2007. Eur J Public Health. 2011; 21:532-537.