İki Kutuplu Hayatta İş-Yaşam Dengesini Sağlamak: Çift Gelirli Aileler, Çalışma Süreleri ve Kısmi Süreli İşler

Öz

Makalede sanayi devrimiyle birlikte önce erkeğin daha sonra da -belirli ölçüde- kadının hayatının nasıl çift kutuplu hale geldiği ortaya konduktan sonra çift gelirli ailelerde iş-yaşam dengesi çeşitli açılardan incelenmektedir. Yirminci yüzyılın ikinci yarısında kadınların işgücüne katılımında ciddi bir artış yaşanmasının temel nedenleri arasında; kimlik ve statü algısında yaşanan değişim, tüketim kültürü, boş vakit problemi ve sosyalleşme, geçim kaygısı, eğitim düzeyinde yaşanan artış ve kendini gerçekleştirme arzusu/olanağı bulunmaktadır. Günümüzde çoğu ülkede kadınların işgücüne katılım oranlarının erkeklerden önemli oranda daha düşük olduğu görülmektedir. Ayrıca, kadınlar işyerinde erkeklerden daha az çalışmak istemektedir ve daha az çalışmaktadır. Dahası, kadınların çalışmak istediği ve çalıştığı süre evlilik ve çocuk(lar) ile birlikte giderek azalma eğilimindedir. Erkeklerde ise genel manada tam tersi bir resim ortaya çıkmaktadır. Ayrıca, ortalamada erkeklerin daha kariyer odaklı oldukları görülmektedir. Ev işlerinde ise kadınlar erkeklerden ciddi oranda daha fazla çalışmaktadır. Genel olarak iş-yaşam dengesinin sağlanabildiği bir zemine ulaşılabilmesi noktasında; a) hem erkekler hem de kadınlar için çalışma sürelerinin ve iş yoğunluğunun “normal” düzeylerde olması, b) kadınların tam zamanlı işlerde kendilerine özgü bir şekilde varlık gösterebilmeleri, c) kısmi süreli işlerin -özellikle kadınlar için- iyi ve güçlü bir alternatif olabilmesi ve d) doğum/annelik izin sürelerinin (hem ücretli hem ücretsiz bazda) yeterli düzeyde olması gerekmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• iş-yaşam dengesi
• iş-aile çatışması
• aşırı çalışma
• kısmi süreli çalışma
• annelik izni

Achieving Work-Life Balance in a Bipolar Life: Dual Earner Families, Working Hours and Part-Time Jobs

Öz

The article puts forth how life has become bipolar for men and -to a certain extent- women, and then analyzes work-life balance in dual-earner families from different angles. The main reasons behind the rise in labor force participation of women in the second half of the 20th century are changes in identity and status perceptions, consumption culture, idle-time problem and socialization, subsistence problem, the increase in educational attainment, and self-realization desire/opportunity. Today, labor force participation rates of women are considerably lower than that of men in most countries. In addition, women want to work less and work less in the workplace. Moreover, the number of hours wanted to work and worked tend to decrease with marriage and child(ren) in women. For men, the opposite picture emerges in general. Plus, men are more career-oriented than women on average. Women do considerably more household work than men. In order to reach the point where work-life balance is achieved, a) working hours and work intensity should be at “normal” levels for both men and women, b) women should have a presence in full-time jobs in their own unique way, c) part-time jobs should be a good and strong alternative, and d) birth/paternity leaves (both paid and unpaid) should be adequate.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• iş-yaşam dengesi
• iş-aile çatışması
• aşırı çalışma
• kısmi süreli çalışma
• annelik izni

Kaynakça

1. Allen, T. D. (2001). Family-supportive work environments: The role of organizational perceptions. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 58(3), 414-435.
2. Allen, T. D., Herst, D. E., Bruck, C. S., & Sutton, M. (2000). Consequences associated with work-to-family conflict: A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(2).
3. Becker, P. E., & Moen, P. (1999). Scaling back: Dual-earner couples' work-family strategies. Journal of Marriage and The Family, 995-1007.
4. Bianchi, S. M., Milkie, M. A., Sayer, L. C., & Robinson, J. P. (2000). Is anyone doing the housework? Trends in the gender division of household labor. Social Forces, 79(1), 191-228.
5. Blank, R. M. (1998). Labor market dynamics and part-time work. Research in Labor Economics, 17.
6. Bond, J. T., Galinsky, E., & Swanberg, J. E. (1997). The National Study of The Changing Workforce, ERIC, No. 2.
7. Bonney, N., & Reinach, E. (1993). Housework reconsidered: The Oakley Thesis Twenty Years Later. Work, Employment and Society, 7(4), 615-627.
8. Booth, A. L., & Van Ours, J. C. (2008). Job satisfaction and family happiness: The part-time work puzzle. The Economic Journal, 118(526), F77-F99.

9. Booth, A. L., & Van Ours, J. C. (2009). Hours of work and gender identity: Does part-time work make the family happier? Economica, 76(301), 176-196.
10. Booth, A. L., & Van Ours, J. C. (2010). Part-Time Jobs: What women want? IZA Discussion Papers(4686). Booth, A. L., & Van Ours, J. C. (2013). Part-Time Jobs: What women want? Journal of Population Economics, 26(1), 263-283. Bowles, S., & Park, Y. (2005). Emulation, inequality, and work hours: Was Thorsten Veblen right? The Economic Journal, 115(507), F397-F412.
11. Brack, J., & Cowling, K. (1983). Advertising and labour supply: Workweek and workyear in US manufacturing industries, 1919–76. Kyklos, 36(2), 285-303.
12. Brooks-Gunn, J., Han, W. J., & Waldfogel, J. (2002). Maternal employment and child cognitive outcomes in the first three years of life: The NICHD Study of Early Child Care. Child Development, 73(4), 1052-1072.
13. Buddelmeyer, H., Mourre, G., & Ward, M. (2008). Why Europeans work part-time? A cross-country panel analysis. Research in Labor Economics, 28(08), 81-139.
14. Buehler, C., & O'Brien, M. (2011). Mothers' part-time employment: Associations with mother and family well-being. Journal of Family Psychology, 25(6), 895.
15. Burger, A. S. (2015). Extreme working hours in Western Europe and North America: A new aspect of polarization. LEQS Paper(92).
16. Bünning, M., & Pollmann-Schult, M. (2016). Family policies and fathers’ working hours: Cross-national differences in the paternal labour supply. Work, Employment and Society, 30(2), 256-274.
17. Chang, H.-J. (2012). 23 Things They Don't Tell You About Capitalism. London: Bloomsbury Publishing.
18. Clark, A. E. (1997). Job satisfaction and gender: Why are women so happy at work? Labour Economics, 4(4), 341-372.
19. Coltrane, S. (2000). Research on household labor: Modeling and measuring the social embeddedness of routine family work. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62(4), 1208-1233.
20. Cowan, R. S. (1983). More work for mother. New York: Basic Books.
21. Cowling, K., Poolsombat, R., & Tomlinson, P. R. (2011). Advertising and labour supply: Why do Americans work such long hours? International Review of Applied Economics, 25(3), 283-301.
22. Craig, L. (2006). Does father care mean fathers share? A comparison of how mothers and fathers in intact families spend time with children. Gender & Society, 20(2), 259-281.
23. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1998). Finding flow: The psychology of engagement with everyday life. New York: Basic Books.
24. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2008). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper Perennial.
25. Curtice, J., Clery, E., Perry, J., Phillips M., & Rahim, N. (2019). British Social Attitudes: The 36th Report. London: The National Centre for Social Research.
26. Delsen, L. (1998). When do men work part-time? Part-Time Prospects: An International Comparison of Part-Time Work in Europe, North America, and The Pacific Rim. (Eds.: Jacqueline O'Reilly and Colette Fagan). London: Routledge. 57-76.
27. Dermott, E. (2006). What's parenthood got to do with it? Men's hours of paid work. The British Journal of Sociology, 57(4), 619-634.
28. Donovan, S. A., & Bradley, D. H. (2019). Real wage trends, 1979 to 2018. U.S. Congressional Research Service Report.
29. Drago, R. W., Black, D., & Wooden, M. (2005). The existence and persistence of long work hours. IZA Discussion Papers (No. 1720).
30. Eastman, W. (1998). Working for position: Women, men, and managerial work hours. Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society, 37(1), 51-66.
31. Eggebeen, D. J., & Knoester, C. (2001). Does fatherhood matter for men? Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(2), 381-393.
32. European Institute for Gender Equality (2014). Gender Equality and Economic Independence: Part-Time Work and Self-Employment.
33. Fagan, C. (2001). Time, money and the gender order: Work orientations and working-time preferences in Britain. Gender, Work & Organization, 8(3), 239-266.
34. Fagan, C., & O’Reilly, J. (1998). “Conceptualising part-time work: The value of an integrated comparative perspective”. In: Jacqueline O'Reilly & Colette Fagan (Eds.), Part-Time Prospects: An International Comparison of Part-Time Work in Europe, North America, and The Pacific Rim. London: Routledge.
35. Fraser, S., & Paton, D. (2003). Does advertising increase labour supply? Time series evidence from the UK. Applied Economics, 35(11), 1357-1368.
36. Galbraith, J. K. (1998). The affluent society. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
37. George, D. (1997). Working longer hours: Pressure from the boss or pressure from the marketers? Review of Social Economy, 55(1), 33-65.
38. George, D. (2013). “Driven to spend: Longer work hours as a byproduct of market forces”. In D. M. Figart & L.
39. Golden (Eds.), Working Time: International Trends, Theory and Policy Perspectives. London: Routledge, 127-142. Gerhardt, S. (2006). Why love matters: How affection shapes a baby's brain. London: Routledge.
40. Gibbs, B. G., Forste, R., & Lybbert, E. (2018). Breastfeeding, parenting, and infant attachment behaviors. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 22(4), 579-588.
41. Gilbert, L. A. (1994). Current perspectives on dual-career families. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 3(4), 101-105.
42. Goh, J., Pfeffer, J., & Zenios, S. A. (2016). The relationship between workplace stressors and mortality and health costs in the United States. Management Science, 62(2), 608-628.
43. Golden, L. (2009). A brief history of long work time and the contemporary sources of overwork. Journal of Business Ethics, 84(2), 217-227.
44. Goldin, C. (2006). The quiet revolution that transformed women's employment, education, and family. American Economic Review, 96(2), 1-21.
45. Greenwood, J., Seshadri, A., & Yorukoglu, M. (2005). Engines of liberation. The Review of Economic Studies, 72(1), 109-133.
46. Hakim, C. (1991). Grateful slaves and self-made women: Fact and fantasy in women's work orientations. European Sociological Review, 7(2), 101-121.
47. Hakim, C. (1995). Five feminist myths about women's employment. British Journal of Sociology, 429-455.
48. Hakim, C. (1996). Key issues in women's work: Female heterogeneity and the polarisation of women's employment. London: A&C Black.
49. Hakim, C. (2000). Work-lifestyle choices in the 21st century: Preference theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
50. Hakim, C. (2002). Lifestyle preferences as determinants of women's differentiated labor market careers. Work and Occupations, 29(4), 428-459.
51. Hakim, C., Bradley, K., Price, E., & Mitchell, L. (2008). Little Britons: Financing childcare choice. Policy Exchange, London.
52. Hallberg, D., & Klevmarken, A. (2003). Time for children: A study of parents' time allocation. Journal of Population Economics, 16(2), 205-226.
53. Hamermesh, D. S. (1996). Workdays, workhours and work schedules: Evidence for the United States and Germany. Michigan: Upjohn Institute.
54. Heikkilä, K., Sacker, A., Kelly, Y., Renfrew, M. J., & Quigley, M. A. (2011). Breastfeeding and child behaviour in the Millennium Cohort Study. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 96(7), 635-642.
55. Hochschild, A., & Machung, A. (2012). The second shift: Working families and the revolution at home. UK: Penguin. Hoherz, S., & Bryan, M. (2020). Provider or father? British men’s work hours and work hour preferences after the birth of a child. Work, Employment and Society, 34(2), 209-225.
56. Huberman, M., & Minns, C. (2007). The times they are not changin’: Days and hours of work in old and new worlds, 1870–2000. Explorations in Economic History, 44(4), 538-567.
57. Ichino, A., & Moretti, E. (2009). Biological gender differences, absenteeism, and the earnings gap. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 1(1), 183-218.
58. ILO. (1919). C001 - Hours of work (Industry) Convention, 1919 (No. 1).
59. ILO. (1930). C030 - Hours of work (Commerce and Offices) Convention, 1930 (No. 30).
60. ILO. (1935). C047 - Forty-Hour Week Convention, 1935 (No. 47).
61. ILO. (2005). Hours of Work: From Fixed to Flexible? Cenevre: ILO Yayınları.
62. Jacobs, J. A., & Gerson, K. (2001). Overworked individuals or overworked families? Explaining trends in work, leisure, and family time. Work and Occupations, 28(1), 40-63.
63. Jacobs, J. A., & Gerson, K. (2004). The time divide. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
64. Keynes, J. M. (1963). Essays in persuasion. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
65. Komlosy, A. (2018). Work: The last 1,000 years. London: Verso Books.
66. Lebergott, S. (2014). Pursuing happiness: American consumers in the twentieth century. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
67. Lee, D.-W., Hong, Y.-C., Seo, H.-Y., Cho, S.-J., Nam, S.-H., Park, C.-J., & Lee, N. (2019). Poor work-life balance may lead to impaired cognitive function in bus drivers. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 61(10), E406-E412.
68. Lombardi, C. M., & Coley, R. L. (2017). Early maternal employment and children's academic and behavioral skills in Australia and the United Kingdom. Child Development, 88(1), 263-281.
69. Lopes, H. (2011). Why do people work? Individual wants versus common goods. Journal of Economic Issues, 45(1), 57-74.
70. Lundberg, S., & Rose, E. (2002). The effects of sons and daughters on men's labor supply and wages. Review of Economics and Statistics, 84(2), 251-268.
71. McLanahan, S. (2004). Diverging destinies: How children are faring under the Second Demographic Transition. Demography, 41(4), 607-627.
72. McNall, L. A., Masuda, A. D., & Nicklin, J. M. (2010). Flexible work arrangements, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions: The mediating role of work-to-family enrichment. The Journal of Psychology, 144(1), 61-81. McRae, S. (2003). Constraints and choices in mothers' employment careers: A consideration of Hakim's preference theory. The British Journal of Sociology, 54(3), 317-338.
73. Mitchell, S. (1996). Daily life in Victorian England. Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group.
74. Neumark, D., & Postlewaite, A. (1998). Relative income concerns and the rise in married women's employment. Journal of Public Economics, 70(1), 157-183.
75. Nock, S. L., & Kingston, P. W. (1988). Time with children: The impact of couples' work-time commitments. Social Forces, 67(1), 59-85.
76. OECD. (2008). Gender and Sustainable Development: Maximising the Economic, Social and Environmental Role of Women. Paris: OECD Publishing.
77. OECD. (2010). OECD Employment Outlook 2010: Moving Beyond the Jobs Crisis. Paris: OECD Publishing. Padavic, I., Ely, R. J., & Reid, E. M. (2020). Explaining the persistence of gender inequality: The work-family narrative as a social defense against the 24/7 work culture. Administrative Science Quarterly, 65(1), 61-111. Parent-Thirion, A., Biletta, I., Cabrita, J., Vargas, O., Vermeylen, G., Wilczynska, A., & Wilkens, M. (2016). Sixth European Working Conditions Survey: Overview Report. Eurofound (European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions).
78. Park, A., John Curtice, Katarina Thomson, Miranda Phillips, Elizabeth Clery, & Butt, S. (2010). British Social Attitudes: The 26th Report. London: The National Centre for Social Research.
79. Paull, G. (2008). Children and women's hours of work. The Economic Journal, 118(526), F8-F27.
80. Pepin, J. R., Sayer, L. C., & Casper, L. M. (2018). Marital status and mothers' time use: Childcare, housework, leisure, and sleep. Demography, 55(1), 107-133.
81. Percheski, C., & Wildeman, C. (2008). Becoming a dad: Employment trajectories of married, cohabiting, and nonresident fathers. Social Science Quarterly, 89(2), 482-501.
82. Ramey, V. A. (2009). Time spent in home production in the twentieth-century United States: New estimates from old data. The Journal of Economic History, 1-47.
83. Ramey, V. A., & Francis, N. (2009). A century of work and leisure. American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, 1(2), 189-224.
84. Redmond, P., & McGuinness, S. (2020). Explaining the gender gap in job satisfaction. Applied Economics Letters, 1-4.
85. Rubinow, I. M. (1906). The problem of domestic service. Journal of Political Economy, 14(8), 502-519.
86. Russo, M., Shteigman, A., & Carmeli, A. (2016). Workplace and family support and work-life balance: Implications for individual psychological availability and energy at work. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 11(2), 173-188.
87. Sandberg, J. F., & Hofferth, S. L. (2001). Changes in children's time with parents: United States, 1981-1997. Demography, 38(3), 423-436.
88. Schor, J. (1998a, September 1998). “The Overspent American: An Interview with Juliet Schor”. Multinational Monitor.
89. Schor, J. (1998b). The Overspent American: When Buying Becomes You. New York: Basic Books.
90. Schor, J. (1999). The New Politics of Consumption. Boston Review, 24(3-4), 4-9.
91. Schor, J. (2008). The Overworked American: The Unexpected Decline of Leisure. New York: Basic Books.
92. Scott, K. D., & McClellan, E. L. (1990). Gender differences in absenteeism. Public Personnel Management, 19(2), 229-254.
93. Sharp, C., & Watt, S. (1995). A study of absence rates in male and female employees working in occupations of equal status. Occupational Medicine, 45(3), 131-136.
94. Simonton, D. (1998). A History of European Women's Work: 1700 to the Present. US: Routledge.
95. Slaughter, A.-M. (2016). Unfinished Business: Women Men Work Family. New York: Random House.
96. Sloane, P. J., & Williams, H. (2000). Job satisfaction, comparison earnings, and gender. Labour, 14(3), 473-502.
97. Smith, M., Fagan, C., & Rubery, J. (1998). “Where and why is part-time work growing in Europe”. In J. O'Reilly & C. Fagan (Eds.), Part-Time Prospects: An International Comparison of Part-Time Work in Europe, North America, and the Pacific Rim, London: Routledge. 35-56.
98. Sousa-Poza, A., & Sousa-Poza, A. A. (2003). Gender differences in job satisfaction in Great Britain, 1991–2000: Permanent or transitory? Applied Economics Letters, 10(11), 691-694.
99. South, S. J., & Spitze, G. (1994). Housework in marital and nonmarital households. American Sociological Review, 327-347.
100. Stone, P. (2007). Opting Out?: Why Women Really Quit Careers and Head Home. California: University of California Press.
101. Sundötrom, M. (1991). Part-Time Work in Sweden: Trends and Equality Effects. Journal of Economic Issues, 25(1), 167-178.
102. Talukder, A. M. H. (2019). Supervisor support and organizational commitment: The role of work-family conflict, job satisfaction, and work-life balance. Journal of Employment Counseling, 56(3), 98-116.
103. Tatlıyer, M. (2020). İstihdamı Paylaşmak: İşsizliğin Nedenleri ve Çözümü. İstanbul: SETA Yayınları.
104. Thistle, S. (2006). From Marriage to the Market: The Transformation of Women's Lives and Work. California: University of California Press.
105. Todd, S. (2009). Domestic Service and Class Relations in Britain 1900–1950. Past and Present, 203(1), 181-204. Vandenheuvel, A., & Wooden, M. (1995). Do explanations of absenteeism differ for men and women? Human Relations, 48(11), 1309-1329.
106. Veblen, T. (2007). The Theory of The Leisure Class. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
107. Virtanen, M., & Kivimäki, M. (2018). Long working hours and risk of cardiovascular disease. Current Cardiology Reports, 20(11).
108. Waldfogel, J., Han, W.-J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2002). The effects of early maternal employment on child cognitive development. Demography, 39(2), 369-392.
109. Walsh, J. (1999). Myths and counter-myths: An analysis of part-time female employees and their orientations to work and working hours. Work, Employment and Society, 13(2), 179-203.
110. Weinshenker, M. (2015). The effect of fatherhood on employment hours: Variation by birth timing, marriage, and coresidence. Journal of Family Issues, 36(1), 3-30.
111. Whiston, S. C., & Cinamon, R. G. (2015). The work-family interface: Integrating research and career counseling practice. The Career Development Quarterly, 63(1), 44-56.
112. Wong, K., Chan, A. H., & Ngan, S. (2019). The effect of long working hours and overtime on occupational health: A meta-analysis of evidence from 1998 to 2018. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(12).
113. Yang, H., Schnall, P. L., Jauregui, M., Su, T.-C., & Baker, D. (2006). Work hours and self-reported hypertension among working people in California. Hypertension, 48(4), 744-750.
114. Zapf, I. (2015). Individual and workplace-specific determinants of paid and unpaid overtime work in Germany. Soeppapers on Multidisciplinary Panel Data Research, No. 771. Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung (DIW), Berlin.
115. Zou, M. (2015). Gender, work orientations and job satisfaction. Work, Employment and Society, 29(1), 3-22.