Yabancılaşmanın Yeniden Ele Alınması: Bilişsel Çarpıtmalar ile Otantik Varoluş Arasında Salınımlar

Öz

Bu çalışmada önce yabancılaşma ve onun karşıtı olarak otantik var olma kavramları tanımlanmaya ve açıklanmaya çalışılmıştır. Bu iki kavramın ele alınmasının arka planında ise bu kavramlar yoluyla özellikle yabancılaşma kavramıyla kitlesel zihniyet çarpıtmalarını önceden kestirmenin önemine dikkat çekilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Diğer bir neden de yabancılaşma konusunda yapılacak ampirik çalışmalara kuramsal bir arka plan hazırlamaktır. Bu çalışma, ilgili psikolojik, sosyolojik ve felsefi literatürün eleştirel biçimde incelenmesine dayanan kuramsal, kavramsal ve bütünleştirici bir derlemedir. Makale, kitlesel düzeyde ortaya çıkan zihniyet bozulmalarının toplumsal kırılganlıklar ve yıkıcı sonuçlar üretme potansiyelinden hareketle, yabancılaşma olgusunun yeniden ve bütüncül biçimde ele alınması gerektiğini savunmaktadır. Temel iddia, toplumsal çözülmelerin yalnızca ekonomik ya da siyasal değişkenlerle açıklanamayacağı; eleştirel bilinç kaybı, yanlış bilinçlilik, ahlakî mesafenin artışı ve bilişsel çarpıtmalar gibi psikososyal süreçlerin bu dönüşümlerde belirleyici rol oynadığıdır. Modern toplumlarda yabancılaşmanın baskı, zorlama veya engellemelerle birlikte yanlış bilinçlilik, bilişsel yanılsamalar, ideolojik kaçışlar ve otantik varoluştan uzaklaşma süreçleri aracılığıyla çoğu zaman fark edilmeksizin içselleştirildiğine dikkat çekilmektedir. Bu nedenle kitlesel zihniyet kaymalarının erken evrede kavranması hem bireysel hem kamusal selamet için önem taşımaktadır. Çalışmada yabancılaşma, bireyin kendisiyle, toplumsal ilişkileriyle, kültürel anlam dünyasıyla, emek ve üretim süreçleriyle ve doğa ile kurduğu ilişkinin bütünlüğünü (failiyet kaybı, kendine mal edememe ve anlamlandıramama üzerinden) kaybetmesi olarak kavramsallaştırılmaktadır. Bu süreç açık bir kopuş olduğu kadar kimi zaman aşırı uyum, sorgulanmamış normatif bağlılık ve hazır ideolojik çerçevelere yönelim şeklinde de gerçekleşebilir. İdeolojik kaçış, mitik ve büyüsel düşünme, sosyal maskeler, savunma mekanizmaları, kendini aldatma ve bilişsel çarpıtmalar gibi psikolojik-bilişsel aracılar, yabancılaşmanın hem bireysel hem de kolektif düzeyde üretilmesini ve sürdürülmesini açıklayan temel mekanizmalar olarak öne çıkar. Sonuç olarak çalışma, yabancılaşmayı teşhis etmeyi toplumsal geleceğe yönelik bir bilinç uyanışı çağrısı olarak değerlendirmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Yabancılaşma
• Yanlış Bilinç
• Kültür
• Otantiklik
• Bilişsel Çarpıtmalar

Destekleyen Kurum

yok

Proje Numarası

Proje destekli bir çalışma dağildir

Etik Beyan

Bu çalışma kuramsal derleme bir çalışma olduğundan her hangi bir etik izin alınması gerekmemektedir.

Teşekkür

Yok

Alienation Revisited: Oscillations between Mental Distortions and Authentic Existence

Öz

This study first seeks to define and elaborate the concepts of alienation and its counterpart, authentic existence. The rationale for addressing these two concepts together lies primarily in highlighting the importance of anticipating social cognitive distortions—particularly through the lens of alienation. Another aim is to provide a theoretical framework for future empirical studies on alienation. This study is a theoretical, conceptual, and integrative review based on a critical examination of the relevant psychological, sociological, and philosophical literature. Drawing on the potential of large-scale social cognitive distortions to generate social vulnerabilities and destructive outcomes, the study argues that the phenomenon of alienation must be reconsidered in a comprehensive and holistic manner. Its central claim is that social disintegration cannot be explained solely by economic or political variables; rather, psychosocial processes such as the loss of critical consciousness, false consciousness, increasing moral distance, and cognitive distortions play a decisive role in these transformations. In modern societies, alienation is often internalised in subtle ways, not only through oppression, coercion, or constraints, but also through false consciousness, cognitive illusions, ideological escapism, and processes of distancing from authentic existence. For this reason, recognising shifts in mass mentality at an early stage is crucial for both individual and public well-being. In this study, alienation is conceptualised as the decrease in the integrity of the individual’s relationship with the self, social relations, the cultural sphere of meaning, processes of labour and production, and nature—manifested through a loss of agency, an inability to appropriate one’s own existence, and a failure to ascribe meaning. This process may occur not only as an explicit rupture, but also in forms such as excessive conformity, unexamined normative commitments, and a tendency toward ready-made ideological frameworks. Psychological and cognitive mediators—such as ideological escape, mythical and magical thinking, social masks, defence mechanisms, self-deception, and cognitive distortions—emerge as key mechanisms that both produce and sustain alienation at individual and collective levels. In conclusion, the study frames the diagnosis of alienation as a call for a renewed awakening of consciousness regarding the future of society

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Alienation
• false consciousness
• culture
• critical consciousness
• authentcity
• cognitive distortions

Destekleyen Kurum

No institute supported the paper

Proje Numarası

Proje destekli bir çalışma dağildir

Etik Beyan

It does not require any ethical decision

Teşekkür

Not valid

Kaynakça

1. Accorsi, A. (2025). Disinformation warfare in the Middle East. Center for Strategic and International Studies. https://www.csis.org/analysis/alessandro-accorsi-disinformation-warfare-middle-east
2. Adorno, T. W. (1973). Negative dialectics (E. B. Ashton, Trans.). Seabury Press.
3. Adorno, T. W., & Horkheimer, M. (2002). Dialectic of Enlightenment: Philosophical fragments (E. Jephcott, Trans.). Stanford University Press. (Original work published 1944)
4. Akder, D. G. (2013). Devrim Teorileri ve Arap Ayaklanmaları: Ortadoğu’dan Dersler. Ortadoğu Etütleri, 4(2), 85-110. https://izlik.org/JA73ND34XT
5. Althusser, L. (1971). Ideology and ideological state apparatuses. In Lenin and philosophy (pp. 127–186). Monthly Review Press.
6. American Psychological Association. (t.y.-a). Alienation. APA Dictionary of Psychology. Retrieved Feb. 8, 2026, from https://dictionary.apa.org/alienation
7. American Psychological Association. (t.y.-b). Authenticity. APA Dictionary of Psychology. Retrieved Dec. 12, 2025, from https://dictionary.apa.org/authenticity
8. Arendt, H. (1951). The origins of totalitarianism. Harcourt, Brace.

9. Arendt, H. (1961). Between past and future: Eight exercises in political thought. Viking Press.
10. Arendt, H. (1963). Eichmann in Jerusalem: A report on the banality of evil. Viking Press.
11. Assmann, J. (2011). Cultural memory and early civilization: Writing, remembrance, and political imagination. Cambridge University Press.
12. Atmaca, T. (2020). Öğretmenlerin kişilik tipleri ile mesleğe yabancılaşma arasındaki ilişki. Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 20(1), 491–506. https://doi.org/10.17240/aibuefd.2020.20.52925-613930
13. Ayers, C. E. (2003). Iraqi resistance to freedom: A Frommian perspective. Parameters, 33(3), 68–84. https://doi.org/10.55540/0031-1723.2157
14. Ayhan, A., & Çakmak, F. (2018). Türkiye’ye Yönelik Algı Operasyonlarının Dijital Medyaya Yansımaları. Akdeniz Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi, 11–35. https://doi.org/10.31123/akil.456509
15. Babacan, M. E., & Yılmaz, İ. (2019). Modern dönem Türkiye toplumunda asabiyet ve sosyal sermaye ilişkisi. İbn Haldun Çalışmaları Dergisi, 4(2), 173–191. https://doi.org/10.36657/ihcd.2019.58
16. Ballet, J., Dubois, J.-L., & Mahieu, F.-R. (2007). Responsibility for each other’s freedom: Agency as the source of collective capability. Journal of Human Development, 8(2), 185–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649880701371000
17. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
18. Bandura, A. (1999). Moral disengagement in the perpetration of inhumanities. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3(3), 193–209. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0303_3
19. Bauman, Z. (2000). Liquid modernity. Polity Press.
20. Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimental, and theoretical aspects. Harper & Row.
21. Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. International Universities Press.
22. Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. Guilford Press.
23. Bélanger, J. J., Moyano, M., Muhammad, H., Richardson, L., Lafrenière, M.-A. K., McCaffery, P., Framand, K., & Nociti, N. (2019). Radicalization leading to violence: A test of the 3N model. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, Article 42. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00042
24. Benjamin, W. (2008). The work of art in the age of its technological reproducibility and other writings on media (M. W. Jennings et al., Eds.). Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1936)
25. Bennabi, M. (1983). The problem of ideas in the Muslim world (M. Aslam, Trans.). Islamic Book Trust.
26. Berger, P. L. (1967). The sacred canopy: Elements of a sociological theory of religion. Anchor Books.
27. Berger, P. L., & Luckmann, T. (1966). The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. Anchor Books.
28. Bianchin, M. (2022). How can consciousness be false? Alienation, simulation, and mental ownership. Philosophy & Social Criticism, 49(6), 650–671. https://doi.org/10.1177/01914537221131578
29. Britannica Editors. (2022, June 12). Alienation. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/alienation-society
30. Bürger, P. (1984). Theory of the avant-garde (M. Shaw, Trans.). University of Minnesota Press.
31. Byrne, J.-P., Creese, J., McMurray, R. G., Costello, R. W., Matthews, A., & Humphries, N. (2023). Feeling like the enemy: The emotion management and alienation of hospital doctors. Frontiers in Sociology, 8, Article 1232555. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2023.1232555
32. Christman, J. (2009). The politics of persons: Individual autonomy and social community. Cambridge University Press.
33. Clayton, S., & Myers, G. (2015). Conservation psychology: Understanding and promoting human care for nature (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
34. Costas, J., & Fleming, P. (2009). Beyond dis-identification: A discursive approach to self-alienation in contemporary organizations. Human Relations, 62(3), 353–378. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726708101041
35. Cuadros, O., Leal-Soto, F., Rubio, A., & Sánchez, B. (2021). Collective self-esteem and school segregation in Chilean secondary students. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 620011. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.620011
36. Dean, D. G. (1961). Alienation: Its meaning and measurement. American Sociological Review, 26(5), 753–758. https://doi.org/10.2307/2090204
37. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
38. Durkheim, É. (1951). Suicide: A study in sociology (J. A. Spaulding & G. Simpson, Trans.). Free Press. (Original work published 1897)
39. Eagleton, T. (2021). İdeoloji (M. Özcan, Çev.). Ayrıntı Yayınları.
40. Erikson, E. H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle. International Universities Press.
41. Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. Norton.
42. Farr, A. L. (2018). Unhappy consciousness, one-dimensionality, and the possibility of social transformation. Tempo Social, 30(3), 25–48. https://doi.org/10.11606/0103-2070.ts.2018.146519
43. Frankl, V. E. (1963). Man’s search for meaning. Beacon Press.
44. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Continuum.
45. Freud, A. (1936). The ego and the mechanisms of defence. Hogarth Press.
46. Freud, S. (1927). The future of an illusion (J. Strachey, Trans.). Hogarth Press.
47. Fromm, E. (1941). Escape from freedom. Farrar & Rinehart.
48. Fromm, E. (1955). The sane society. Rinehart & Company.
49. Gazâlî. (2014). el-Munkız mine’d-dalâl (S. Uludağ, Trans.). Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları. (Original work published ca. 1106)
50. Gazâlî. (2018). İhyâʾ ʿulûmi’d-dîn (A. Arslan et al., Trans.). Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları. (Original work published ca. 1095-1105)
51. Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures. Basic Books.
52. Giddens, A., & Sutton, P. W. (2021). Sosyoloji (E. A. Kayhan, Çev.). Kırmızı Yayınları.
53. Goodenough, W. H. (1971). Culture, language, and society. Addison-Wesley.
54. Gook, B., & Hoens, D. (2022). Alienation (pp. 1–15). https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003212096-1
55. Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the prison notebooks (Q. Hoare & G. Nowell Smith, Eds. & Trans.). International Publishers.
56. Güvenç, B. (1997). Kültürün ABC’si. Yapı Kredi.
57. Hajda, J. (1961). Alienation and integration of student intellectuals. American Sociological Review, 26(5), 758–777. https://doi.org/10.2307/2090205
58. Hardimon, M. O. (1994). Hegel’s social philosophy: The project of reconciliation. Cambridge University Press.
59. Harvey, D. (1990). The condition of postmodernity: An enquiry into the origins of cultural change. Blackwell.
60. Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. L. (1994). Emotional contagion. Cambridge University Press.
61. Heidegger, M. (1962). Being and time (J. Macquarrie & E. Robinson, Trans.). Harper & Row. (Original work published 1927)
62. Heidegger, M. (1971). Poetry, language, thought (A. Hofstadter, Trans.). Harper & Row.
63. Hesselink, M. W. (2023). Alienation commodification: A critique of the role of EU consumer law. European Law Open, 2(2), 405–423. https://doi.org/10.1017/elo.2023.33
64. Horney, K. (1949). Neurosis and human growth. W. W. Norton.
65. Husserl, E. (1970). The crisis of European sciences and transcendental phenomenology. Northwestern University Press.
66. İbn Haldun. (2016). Mukaddime (S. Uludağ, Trans.). Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları. (Original work published 1377)
67. Iqbal, M. (2013). The reconstruction of religious thought in Islam. Stanford University Press. (Original work published 1930)
68. Jaeggi, R. (2014). Alienation (F. Neuhouser & A. E. Smith, Trans.). Columbia University Press.
69. Jung, C. G. (1966). The relations between the ego and the unconscious (R. F. C. Hull, Trans.). In H. Read, M. Fordham, & G. Adler (Eds.), The collected works of C. G. Jung (Vol. 7, 2nd ed., pp. 123–304). Princeton University Press. (Original work published 1928)
70. Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
71. Kaldis, B. (2013). Alienation. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Fall 2013 ed.). Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/alienation/
72. Kernis, M. H., & Goldman, B. M. (2006). A multicomponent conceptualization of authenticity: Theory and research. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 283–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(06)38006-9
73. Kierkegaard, S. (1989). The present age (A. Dru, Trans.). Penguin Books. (Original work published 1846)
74. Kuran, T., & Sunstein, C. R. (1999). Availability cascades and risk regulation. Stanford Law Review, 51(4), 683–768. https://doi.org/10.2307/1229439
75. Le Bon, G. (2002). The crowd: A study of the popular mind. Dover Publications. (Original work published 1895)
76. Lehman, D. W., O'Connor, K., Kovács, B., & Newman, G. E. (2019). Authenticity. The Academy of Management Annals, 13(1), 1–42. https://doi.org/10.5465/annals.2017.0047
77. Leopold, D. (2022). Alienation. In E. N. Zalta & U. Nodelman (Eds.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Winter 2022 ed.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2022/entries/alienation/
78. Lukács, G. (1971). History and class consciousness (R. Livingstone, Trans.). MIT Press. (Original work published 1923)
79. Lukes, S. (2023). İktidar: Radikal bir görüş (M. Ratip, Çev.). İletişim Yayınları.
80. Macionis, J. J. (2012). Sosyoloji (V. Akan, Çev. Ed.). Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık.
81. MacIver, R. M. (1950). The ramparts we guard. Macmillan.
82. Maddi, S. R. (1968). Personality theories: A comparative analysis. Dorsey Press.
83. Maddi, S. R., Kobasa, S. C., & Hoover, M. (1979). An alienation test. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 19(4), 73–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/002216787901900406
84. Marcuse, H. (1964). One-dimensional man. Beacon Press.
85. Marcuse, H. (2002). Eros and civilization. Routledge. (Original work published 1955)
86. Marx, K. (1975). Economic and philosophical manuscripts of 1844. Progress Publishers. (Original work published 1844)
87. Marx, K. (1990). Capital: A critique of political economy, Volume I (B. Fowkes, Trans.). Penguin Classics. (Original work published 1867)
88. Marx, K., & Engels, F. (2013). Alman ideolojisi (S. Belli, Çev.). Sol Yayınları. (Original work published 1846)
89. Melita, D., Kossowska, M., Dragon, P., Moyano, M., Gołąb, M., Andrysiak, A., & Rodríguez, R. (2025). Two Sources of Alienation from Society: The Role of Economic Relative Deprivation, Anti-Mainstream Identities, and Perceived Ingroup Injustice. Social Indicators Research, 180(2), 589–617. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-025-03687-7
90. Moore, J. W. (2016). What is the sense of agency and why does it matter? Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1272. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01272
91. Morgan, J. (2018). Species Being in the Twenty-First Century. Leeds Beckett Repository (Leeds Beckett University), 30(3), 377–395. https://doi.org/10.1080/09538259.2018.1498583
92. Moscovici, S. (1985). Social influence and conformity. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 347–412). Random House.
93. Nicol, C., & Rounding, K. (2013). The dark triad and social connectedness: Exploring links with alienation and interpersonal relationships. Personality and Individual Differences, 55(6), 693–698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.05.014
94. Nisbett, R. E. (2003). The geography of thought: How Asians and Westerners think differently – and why. Free Press.
95. Öngen, T. (1994). Prometheus’un Sönmeyen Ateşi: Günümüzde işçi sınıfı. Alan Yayıncılık.
96. Opotow, S. (1990). Moral exclusion and injustice: An introduction. Journal of Social Issues, 46(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1990.tb00246.x
97. Osin, E. N. (2009). Alienation from study as a predictor of academic burnout. Psychology in Russia: State of the Art, 2, 294–307.
98. Özdel, K., Taymur, İ., Güriz, S. O., Tulacı, R. G., Kuru, E., & Türkçapar, M. H. (2014). Measuring cognitive errors using the Cognitive Distortions Scale (CDS): Psychometric properties in clinical and non-clinical samples. PLOS ONE, 9(8), e105956. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0105956
99. Pargament, K. I. (1997). The psychology of religion and coping. Guilford Press.
100. Pettit, P. (1997). Republicanism: A theory of freedom and government. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/0198296428.001.0001
101. Piaget, J. (1977). The development of thought: Equilibration of cognitive structures. Viking Press.
102. Rahman, F. (1982). Islam and modernity: Transformation of an intellectual tradition. University of Chicago Press.
103. Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person. Houghton Mifflin.
104. Roszak, T. (1992). The voice of the earth: An exploration of ecopsychology. Phanes Press.
105. Rottweiler, B., Gill, P., & Bouhana, N. (2022). Individual and environmental explanations for violent extremist intentions: A German nationally representative survey study. Justice Quarterly, 39(4), 825–846. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2020.1869807
106. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
107. Sarı, T., Atik, S., & Çelik, O. T. (2021). Do the personality traits of teacher candidates predict the perception of self-efficacy and alienation from school? Participatory Educational Research, 8(4), 439–453. https://doi.org/10.17275/per.21.99.8.4
108. Sartre, J.-P. (2003). Being and nothingness (H. E. Barnes, Trans.). Routledge. (Original work published 1943)
109. Sartre, J.-P. (2007). Existentialism is a humanism (C. Macomber, Trans.). Yale University Press. (Original work published 1946)
110. Schaefer, R. T. (2013). Sociology: A brief introduction (10th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
111. Scherer, A. G., Neesham, C., Schoeneborn, D., & Scholz, M. (2023). Guest editors’ introduction: New challenges to the Enlightenment: How twenty-first-century sociotechnological systems facilitate organized immaturity and how to counteract it. Business Ethics Quarterly, 33(3), 409–439. https://doi.org/10.1017/beq.2023.7
112. Seeman, M. (1959). On the meaning of alienation. American Sociological Review, 24(6), 783–791. https://doi.org/10.2307/2088565
113. Sennett, R. (1994). Flesh and stone: The body and the city in Western civilization. W. W. Norton & Company.
114. Şentürk, R. (2018). Küresel kimlik bunalımı. Türkiye İletişim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 30, 181–216. https://doi.org/10.17829/turcom.461362
115. Shariati, A. (1986). Religion vs. religion (L. Bakhtiar, Trans.). Alavi Foundation.
116. Shaw, L. (2021). On Rupture: Establishing the Cognitive Bases of Social Change. Sociological Forum, 36, 1229–1252. https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12766
117. Stevens, J., Binns, A., Morgan, B., & Egger, G. (2017). Meaninglessness, alienation, and loss of culture/identity (MAL) as determinants of chronic disease. In G. Egger, A. Binns, S. Rössner, & M. Sagner (Eds.), Lifestyle medicine (3rd ed., pp. 317–325). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-810401-9.00020-6
118. Struening, E. L., & Richardson, A. H. (1965). A factor-analytic exploration of alienation, anomie, and authoritarianism. American Sociological Review, 30(5), 768–776. https://doi.org/10.2307/2091149
119. Swann, W. B., Jr., Gómez, Á., Seyle, D. C., Morales, J. F., & Huici, C. (2009). Identity fusion: The interplay of personal and social identities in extreme group behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(5), 995–1011. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013668
120. Szanto, T. (2017). Emotional Self-Alienation. Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen), 41(1), 260–286. https://doi.org/10.1111/misp.12074
121. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Brooks/Cole.
122. Tarde, G. (1903). The laws of imitation (E. C. Parsons, Trans.). Henry Holt and Company. (Original work published 1890)
123. Tekin, M. (2016). “Din”dârâne Yabancılaşma / Religious Alienation. İlahiyat Akademi, 3, 55-66. https://izlik.org/JA76UC66FJ
124. Thompson, M. J. (2013). Alienation as atrophied moral cognition and its implications for political behavior. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 43(3), 301–321. https://doi.org/10.1111/jtsb.12021
125. Thompson, M. J. (2014). False consciousness reconsidered: A theory of defective social cognition. Critical Sociology, 41(3), 449–461. https://doi.org/10.1177/0896920514528817
126. Tillich, P. (1952). The courage to be. Yale University Press.
127. Tolstoy, L. (2009). Resurrection (L. & A. Maude, Trans.). Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1899)
128. Türkçapar, M. H. (2007). Bilişsel terapi: Temel ilkeler ve uygulama. HYB Yayıncılık.
129. Tylor, E. B. (1958). Primitive culture (Vol. 1). Harper Torchbooks. (Original work published 1871)
130. Villanueva, C. F. (2016). “Distant” beings or “human” beings: real images of violence and strategies of implication or distancing from victims. Communication & Society, 29(3), 103–118. https://doi.org/10.15581/003.29.3.103-118
131. Weber, M. (1978). Economy and society: An outline of interpretive sociology (G. Roth & C. Wittich, Eds.). University of California Press. (Original work published 1922)
132. Yalçınkaya, T. (2023). The tension between pedagogical indoctrination and mental freedom. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 56(2), 813–877.
133. Yılmaz, E. (2023). Structural looks of the culture and art area in Turkey in the 1980s. Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 22(85), 305–313. https://doi.org/10.17755/esosder.1153113
134. Zannettou, S., Sirivianos, M., Blackburn, J., & Kourtellis, N. (2019). The web of false information: Rumors, fake news, hoaxes, clickbait, and various other shenanigans. Journal of Data and Information Quality, 11(3), 1–37. https://doi.org/10.1145/3309699