MEZENFORMASYON VE DEZENFORMASYON FAALİYETLERİ, SEKTÖREL RİSKLER VE İLETİŞİM TEKNOLOJİLERİ

Yıl 2022, Sayı: 26-Ek Sayı, 45 - 52, 15.11.2022

Nurat Kara

Öz

Bilgi bozukluğu iletişim teknolojilerinin yaygınlaşması ile ulusal ve uluslararası bir sorun olma yolunda ilerlemektedir. Teknolojilerin hızla gelişmesi, yaşanan sosyo-ekonomik olaylar ve küresel sağlık problemleri gibi konular ekseninde bilgi bozukluğu sürekli önemi artan bir konu olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Genellikle mezenformasyon veya dezenformasyon olarak detaylandırılan bilgi bozukluğu toplumları etkilediği gibi sektörleri de etkisi altına almaya başlamıştır. Hem dezenformasyon, yani kasıtlı yanıltma, hem de mezenformasyon, yani farkında olmadan bilgi bozukluğuna sebebiyet verme, toplumları ve sektörleri yeni bir takım siber tehditlerle karşı karşıya bırakmaktadır. Bu durum bazı, yeni ve ciddiye alınması gereken sektörel riskleri de beraberinde getirmektedir. Bazı sektörel risklerle birlikte, yeni iletişim olanaklarının hızla çeşitlenmesi dijitalleşmeyi ve siber tehditleri de yaygınlaştırmaktadır. Dijital dönüşüm bir yandan sektörler için bazı yeni olanakları yaratsa da meydana getireceği muhtemel siber sorunların şimdiden dikkate alınması önemli bir çalışma alanı olarak düşünülmektedir. Aksi durumun ileride önemli birtakım olumsuz sonuçları beraberinde getirmesi olasıdır. Bu çalışma ile bilgi bozukluğunun, hem dezenformasyon hem de mezenformasyon, sektörel olarak yaratacağı riskleri anlamak ve de bu risklere yönelik birtakım önerileri sunmak amaçlanmaktadır. Çalışmada bu öneriler şu şekilde sıralanmıştır: Dijital dönüşüm stratejileri oluşturmak, siber riskleri belirlemek ve değerlendirmek, standartlar ve normlar belirlemek ve benimsemek, mezenformasyon ve dezenformasyonu önleme ve çeşitli endüstriler, sektörler ve uluslararası liderlerle ve liderlere fayda sağlayabilecek ortaklıklarla yatırımları artırmak.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Bilgi bozukluğu, Sektörel Tehditler, Siber Güvenlik, İletişim Teknolojileri

MISINFORMATION AND DISINFORMATION ACTIVITIES, SECTORAL RISKS AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

Öz

Information disorder is on its way to becoming a national and international problem with the spread of communication technologies. Information disorder is a constantly increasing issue in the axis of issues such as the rapid development of technologies, socio-economic events, and global health problems. Information disorder, often detailed as misinformation or disinformation, has begun to affect the sectors and societies. Both disinformation, that is, deliberate deception, and misinformation, causing information corruption without being aware of it, expose societies and sectors to a new set of cyber threats. This situation brings some new and sectoral risks that should be taken seriously. Along with some sectoral risks, the rapid diversification of new communication opportunities makes digitalization and cyber threats widespread. Although digital transformation creates some new opportunities for the sectors, it is considered an essential field of study to consider the possible cyber problems it will create. Otherwise, it may bring some essential negative consequences in the future. This study aims to understand the risks that information disorder will create both disinformation and misinformation sectoral and present some suggestions for these risks. In the study, these recommendations are listed as follows: Creating digital transformation strategies, identifying, and evaluating cyber risks, setting and adopting standards and norms, preventing misinformation and disinformation, and increasing investments with various industries, sectors, and international leaders and partnerships that can benefit leaders.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Information Distortion, Sectoral Threats, Cyber Security, Communication Technologies

Kaynakça

• Agarwal, R., Gao, G., Desroches, C., & Jha, A. K. (2010). Research commentary the digital transformation of healthcare: Current status and the road ahead. Information Systems Research, 21(4), 796e809.
• Ahmad, A., Webb, J., Desouza, K. C., & Boorman, J. (2019). Strategically motivated advanced persistent threat: Definition, process, tactics and a disinformation model of counterattack. Computers & Security, 86, 402e418.
• APWG. (2020, August 27). Phishing activity trends report, 2nd quarter 2020. Anti-Phishing Working Group. Available at https://docs.apwg.org/reports/apwg_trends_report_q2_ 2020.pdf
• Awotar-Mauree, R. (2016). Building cybersecurity capacity global partnerships. Available at https://rm.coe.int/ 16806b9932
• Bell, G., & Ebert, M. (2015). Health care and cyber security: Increasing threats require increased capabilities. KPMG. Available at https://assets.kpmg/content/dam/kpmg/pdf/ 2015/09/cyber-health-care-survey-kpmg-2015.pdf
• Blair, D., Huntsman, J., Barrett, C., Lynn, W., Gorton, S., Wince-Smith, D., et al. (2017). Update to the IP commission report. National Bureau of Asian Research. Available at https://www.nbr.org/program/commission-on-the-theftof-intellectual-property/
• Boddy, M. (2018). Phishing 2.0: The new evolution in cybercrime. Computer Fraud & Security, 2018(11), 8e10.
• Bradshaw, S., & Howard, P. (2018). The global organization of social media disinformation campaigns. Journal of International Affairs, 71(1.5), 23e32.
• Carr, C. T., & Hayes, R. A. (2015). Social media: Defining, developing, and divining. Atlantic Journal of Communication, 23(1), 46e65.
• Cepoi, C. (2020). Asymmetric dependence between stock market returns and news during COVID-19 financial turmoil. Finance Research Letters, 36, 101658.
• Champion, A. (2020, October). Cyber-attack detection challenges and how to meet them. F-secure. Available at https://www.f-secure.com/gb-en/consulting/our-thinking/ challenges-of-cyber-attack-detection
• Cimpanu, C. (2020, December 04). Johnson & Johnson CISO: Healthcare orgs are seeing nation-state attacks every single minute of every single day. ZDNet. Available at https:// www.zdnet.com/article/johnson-johnson-ciso-healthcareorgs-are-seeing-nation-state-attacks-every-single-minuteof-every-single-day/
• CIS. (2021). Cybersecurity spotlight: Cyber threat actors. Center for Internet Security. Available at https://www. cisecurity.org/spotlight/cybersecurity-spotlight-cyberthreat-actors/
• CISA. (n.d.). Healthcare and public health sector. Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency. Available at https:// www.cisa.gov/healthcare-and-public-health-sector.
• Cisco. (2020). What are the most common cyber-attacks?. Available at https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/products/ security/common-cyberattacks.html
• CITS. (2021). A brief history of fake news. Center for Information Technology and Society. Available at https://www.cits. ucsb.edu/fake-news/brief-history
• Clarke, J., Chen, H., Du, D., & Hu, Y. (2020). Fake news, investor attention, and market reaction. Information Systems Research, 32(1), 35e52.
• Collier, Z. A., Dimase, D., Walters, S., Tehranipoor, M. M., Lambert, J. H., & Linkov, I. (2014). Cybersecurity standards: Managing risk and creating resilience. Computer, 47(9), 70e76.
• Coventry, L., & Branley, D. (2018). Cybersecurity in healthcare: A narrative review of trends, threats, and ways forward. Maturitas, 113, 48e52.
• Crisanto, J. C., & Prenio, J. (2020). Financial crime in times of COVID-19: AML and cyber resilience measures. Financial Stability Institute. Available at https://www.bis.org/fsi/ fsibriefs7.pdf
• Daly, C. B. (2018). Covering America: A narrative history of a nation’s journalism. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press.
• Deloitte. (2020). COVID-19 executive cyber briefing. Available at https://www2.deloitte.com/global/en/pages/risk/covid-19/ global-cyber-covid-19-weekly-executive-cyber-briefing.html
• ENISA. (2020). ENISA threat landscape. European Union Agency for Cybersecurity. Available at https://www.enisa.europa. eu/topics/threat-risk-management/threats-and-trends
• European Commission. (2018). Final report of the high-level expert group on fake news and online disinformation. Available at https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/ en/news/final-report-high-level-expert-group-fake-newsand-online-disinformation
• European Court of Auditors. (2020). EU action plan against disinformation. Available at https://www.eca.europa.eu/ Lists/ECADocuments/AP20_04/AP_Disinformation_EN.pdf
• Fallis, D. (2009). A conceptual analysis of disinformation. Available at https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/handle/2142/ 15205
• Fallis, D. (2015). What is disinformation? Library Trends, 63(3), 401e426.
• Ghafir, I., & Prenosil, V. (2014). Advanced persistent threat attack detection: An overview. International Journal of Advances in Computer Networks and Its Security, 4(4), 50e54.
• Griffin, B. (2019). Yellow journalism, sensationalism, and circulation wars. New York, NY: Cavendish Square Publishing.
• Haggerty, E. (2017). Healthcare and digital transformation. Network Security, 2017(8), 7e11.
• Hanna, R., Rohm, A., & Crittenden, V. L. (2011). We’re all connected: The power of the social media ecosystem. Business Horizons, 54(3), 265e273.
• IBM. (2020). Cost of a data breach report 2020. Available at https://www.ibm.com/security/digital-assets/cost-databreach-report/#/
• ICC. (2020). COVID-19 cyber security threats to MSMEs. International Chamber of Commerce. Available at https:// iccwbo.org/content/uploads/sites/3/2020/05/2020-icc-soscybersecurity.pdf
• Interpol. (2020). INTERPOL report shows alarming rate of cyberattacks during COVID-19. Lyon, France: International Criminal Police Organization.
• Ireton, C., & Posetti, J. (2018). Journalism, ‘fake news,’ and disinformation. Paris, France: UNESCO. ISACA. (2020). State of cybersecurity 2020. Schaumburg, IL: Information Systems Audit and Control Association.
• Jackson, D. (2017, October 17). Issue brief: Distinguishing disinformation from propaganda, misinformation, and “fake news.” National Endowment for Democracy. Available at https://www.ned.org/issue-brief-distinguishingdisinformation-from-propaganda-misinformation-and-fakenews/
• Jang-Jaccard, J., & Nepal, S. (2014). A survey of emerging threats in cybersecurity. Journal of Computer and System Sciences, 80(5), 973e993. J
• ohansson, S. (2020). Tabloid journalism and tabloidization. Oxford Research Encyclopedias: Communication. Available at https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.877
• Kaplan, A., & Haenlein, M. (2019). Digital transformation and disruption: On big data, blockchain, artificial intelligence, and other things. Business Horizons, 62(6), 679e681.
• Knuutila, A., Neuder, L., & Howard, P. (2020). Global fears of disinformation. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
• Kogan, S., Moskowitz, T. J., & Niessner, M. (2020). Fake news: Evidence from financial markets. Available at https:// papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_idZ3237763
• Krohn, A. (Ed.), (2020, March 26). Coronavirus is testing op risk managers to the limit. Risk. Available at https://www.risk. net/comment/7511026/coronavirus-is-testing-op-riskmanagers-to-the-limit
• Kshetri, N., & Voas, J. (2017). The economics of “fake news.” IT Professional, 19(6), 8e12.
• Le, H. T., Nguyen, D. N., Beydoun, A. S., Le, X. T., Nguyen, T. T., Pham, Q. T., et al. (2020). Demand for health information on COVID-19 among Vietnamese. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(12). Article 4377.
• Luna, R., Rhine, E., Myhra, M., Sullivan, R., & Kruse, C. S. (2016). Cyber threats to health information systems: A systematic review. Technology and Health Care, 24(1), 1e9. Marques, I. C., & Ferreira, J. J. (2019). Digital transformation in the area of health: Systematic review of 45 years of evolution. Health Technology, 10(3), 575e586.
• Martens, B., Aguiar, L., Gomez-Herrera, E., & Mueller-Langer, F. (2018). The digital transformation of news media and the rise of disinformation and fake news. Digital Economy Working Paper 2018-02, Joint Research Centre Technical Reports. Available at https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn. 3164170
• Martin, G., Martin, P., Hankin, C., Darzi, A., & Kinross, J. (2017). Cybersecurity and healthcare: How safe are we? BMJ. Available at https://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j3179
• Mirfin, J. (2020, October 8). COVID-19 and financial crime digital transformation. Refinitive. Available at https://www. refinitiv.com/perspectives/financial-crime/covid-19-andfighting-financial-crime/
• Mitchell, T., & Politi, J. (2019, April 30). Trump drops cyber theft demands in bid for swift trade deal with China. Financial Times. Available at https://www.ft.com/content/ 3cb5bfda-6b0e-11e9-80c7-60ee53e6681d
• Mueller, R. S. (2019). The Mueller report: Report on the investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election. Available at https://www.justice.gov/ archives/sco/file/1373816/download
• NASEM. (2018). Securing the vote: Protecting American democracy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. NATO. (2020). Media e (Dis)information e security. Available at https://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/2020/ 5/pdf/2005-deepportal1-fake-news.pdf
• Nemr, C., & Gangware, W. (2019). Weapons of mass distraction: Foreign state-sponsored disinformation in the digital age. Park Advisors. Available at https://www.state.gov/wpcontent/uploads/2019/05/Weapons-of-Mass-DistractionForeign-State-Sponsored-Disinformation-in-the-Digital-Age. pdf
• NIST. (2015). Security and privacy controls for federal information systems and organizations. Washington, DC: National Institute for Standards and Technology. OSCE. (2017). Joint declaration on freedom of expression and “fake news,” disinformation and propaganda. Vienna, Austria: Organization for Security and Co-Operation in Europe.
• Oxford English Dictionary. (2020). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
• Panda. (2020). 43 COVID-19 cybersecurity statistics. Available at https://www.pandasecurity.com/en/mediacenter/ news/covid-cybersecurity-statistics/ Parham, G., &
• Whitmore, W. (2020). COVID-19 cyberwar: How to protect your business. IBM. Available at https://www. ibm.com/downloads/cas/Y5QGA7VZ
• Porter, M. E., & Millar, V. E. (1985). How information gives you competitive advantage: The information revolution is transforming the nature of competition. Harvard Business Review, 63(4), 149e160.
• RAND. (2019, December 19). Fighting disinformation online: A database of web tools. Available at https://www.rand.org/ research/projects/truth-decay/fighting-disinformation. html
• Saarikko, T., Westergren, U. H., & Blomquist, T. (2020). Digital transformation: Five recommendations for the digitally conscious firm. Business Horizons, 63(6), 825e839.
• Sanger, D. E. (2016, December 29). Obama strikes back at Russia for election hacking. The New York Times. Available at https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/29/us/politics/russiaelection-hacking-sanctions.html
• Sardi, A., Rizzi, A., Sorano, E., & Guerrieri, A. (2020). Cyber risk in health facilities: A systematic literature review. Sustainability, 12(17). Article 7002. Schwab, K. (2016). The fourth industrial revolution. World Economic Forum. Available at https://www.weforum.org/ agenda/2016/01/the-fourth-industrial-revolution-what-itmeans-and-how-to-respond/
• Stankiewicz, K., & Pisani, B. (2020, November 2). Cybersecurity threats to corporate America are present now ‘more than ever,’ SEC chair says. CNBC. Available at https://www.cnbc. com/2020/11/02/secs-jay-clayton-on-cybersecuritythreats-to-corporate-america.html
• Stilgherrian. (2020, December 7). Cyber attacks on COVID-19 vaccine production are not quite a war crime. ZDNet. Available at https://www.zdnet.com/article/cyber-attackson-covid-19-vaccine-production-are-not-quite-a-war-crime/
• Stubbs, J. (2020, December 9). Hackers steal Pfizer/BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine data in Europe, companies say. Reuters. Available at https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-emacyber/hackers-steal-pfizer-biontech-covid-19-vaccine-datain-europe-companies-say-idUKKBN28J1VF
• Tardelli, S., Avvenuti, M., Tesconi, M., & Cresci, S. (2020). Characterizing social bots spreading financial disinformation. In G. Meiselwitz (Ed.), Social computing and social media: Design, ethics, user behavior, and social network analysis lecture notes in computer science (pp. 376e392). Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
• Tsfati, Y., Boomgaarden, H. G., Stro¨mba¨ck, J., Vliegenthart, R., Damstra, A., & Lindgren, E. (2020). Causes and consequences of mainstream media dissemination of fake news: Literature review and synthesis. Annals of the International Communication Association, 44(2), 157e173.
• Tucker, J., Guess, A., Barbera, P., Vaccari, C., Siegel, A., Sanovich, S., et al. (2018). Social media, political polarization, and political disinformation: A review of the scientific literature. Hewlett Foundation. Available at https://www. hewlett.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Social-MediaPolitical-Polarization-and-Political-DisinformationLiterature-Review.pdf
• U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (2016, December 29). Grizzly steppe e Russian malicious cyber activity. Washington, DC: DHS.
• U.S. Department of State. (2020). Pillars of Russia’s disinformation and propaganda ecosystem. Washington, DC: DoS.
• U.S. Department of the Treasury. (2017). Cyber-related sanctions program. Washington, DC: DoT.
• U.S. Department of the Treasury. (2018). Treasury sanctions Russian cyber actors for interference with the 2016 U.S. elections and malicious cyber-attacks. Available at https:// home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sm0312
• West, D. M. (2017). How to combat fake news and disinformation. Brookings. Available at https://www.brookings.edu/ research/how-to-combat-fake-news-and-disinformation/
• WHO. (2020, February 15). Munich security conference. Available at https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/ detail/munich-security-conference
• Wisniewski, T. P. (2015). Is there a link between politics and stock returns? A literature survey. International Review of Financial Analysis, 47, 15e23.
• Wolfers, J., & Zitzewitz, E. (2016). What do financial markets think of the 2016 election? Brookings. Available at https:// www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/whatdo-financial-markets-think-of-the-2016-election_102016_ wolferszitzewitz.pdf
• Zhang, X., & Ghorbani, A. A. (2020). An overview of online fake news: Characterization, detection, and discussion. Information Processing & Management, 57(2), Article 102025.