Hidrososyal Döngü: Su Yönetiminde Sosyo-Politik ve Çevresel Dinamikler

Öz

Bu makale, suyun yalnızca fiziksel bir döngü değil; toplumsal ilişkiler, politik yapılar ve çevresel dönüşümlerle iç içe geçmiş bir süreç olduğunu savunan hidrososyal döngü kavramı çerçevesinde su yönetimini eleştirel biçimde analiz etmektedir. Marx, Wittfogel ve Worster gibi klasik düşünürlerin tarihsel yaklaşımlarından yola çıkan çalışma, çağdaş politik ekoloji literatüründe Swyngedouw, Bakker, Sultana ve Loftus’un katkılarıyla gelişen çok katmanlı teorik bir yapı kurmaktadır. Bu kuramsal çerçeve, Bolivya’daki Cochabamba Su Savaşları, Hindistan’daki Narmada Vadisi baraj projeleri ve ABD’deki Kaliforniya su yönetimi örnekleri üzerinden yürütülen karşılaştırmalı içerik analiziyle empirik olarak sınanmıştır. Her bir vaka çalışması, suyun metalaşması, toplumsal eşitsizlik, yerinden edilme, çevresel bozulma ve yerel bilgi sistemlerinin dışlanması gibi dinamikleri görünür kılmakta; hidrososyal döngünün adalet, sürdürülebilirlik ve yönetişim ilkeleriyle ilişkisini ortaya koymaktadır. Çalışma, aynı zamanda Türkiye’deki su yönetimi deneyimlerinin de bu çerçeveyle yeniden değerlendirilmesi gerektiğini savunarak, teorik bir zemin ve karşılaştırmalı bir perspektif sunmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• su yönetimi
• toplumsal adalet
• çevresel sürdürülebilirlik
• politik ekoloji
• neoliberalizm

Hydrosocial Cycle: Socio-Political and Environmental Dynamics in Water Management

Öz

This article offers a critical analysis of water governance through the lens of the hydrosocial cycle, a concept that conceives water not merely as a physical flow but as a process deeply entangled with social relations, political structures, and environmental transformations. Drawing on the historical approaches of classical theorists such as Marx, Wittfogel, and Worster, and extending them through the contemporary political ecology literature—particularly the works of Swyngedouw, Bakker, Sultana, and Loftus—the study constructs a multi-layered theoretical framework. This framework is empirically grounded in a comparative content analysis of three case studies: the Cochabamba Water War in Bolivia, the Narmada Valley dam projects in India, and water governance in California, USA. Each case reveals how water becomes a site of commodification, social inequality, displacement, ecological degradation, and the marginalization of local knowledge systems, thus demonstrating the hydrosocial cycle's relevance to issues of justice, sustainability, and governance. The article also argues that water governance experiences in Turkey should be revisited through this lens, offering both a theoretical foundation and a comparative perspective for future research.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• water management
• social justice
• environmental sustainability
• political ecology
• neoliberalism

Kaynakça

1. Alam, S., Gebremichael, M., Li, R., Dozier, J., & Lettenmaier, D. P. (2019). Climate change impacts on groundwater storage in the Central Valley, California. Climatic Change, 157(3), 387-406.
2. Assies, W. (2003). David versus Goliath in Cochabamba: Water Rights, Neoliberalism, and the Revival of Social Protest in Bolivia. Latin American Perspectives, 30(3), 14-36.
3. Bakker, K. (2003). Archipelagos and Networks: Urbanization and Water Privatization in the South. Geographical Journal, 169(4), 328-341.
4. Bakker, K. (2004). An uncooperative commodity: Privatizing water in England and Wales. Oxford University Press.
5. Bakker, K. (2005). Neoliberalizing nature? Market environmentalism in water supply in England and Wales. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 95(3), 542-565.
6. Baviskar, A. (1995). In the belly of the river: Tribal conflicts over development in the Narmada Valley. Oxford University Press.
7. Bhaumik, U., Mukhopadhyay, M. K., Shrivastava, N. P., Sharma, A. P., & Singh, S. N. (2017). A case study of the Narmada River system in India with particular reference to the impact of dams on its ecology and fisheries. Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 20(1-2), 151-159.
8. Boelens, R. (2014). Cultural politics and the hydrosocial cycle: Water, power and identity in the Andean highlands. Geoforum, 57, 234-247.

9. Boelens, R., Vos, J., & Perreault, T. (2016). Introduction: Water justice and the politics of water rights. İçinde T. Perreault, R. Boelens & J. Vos (Ed..), Water Justice (pp. 1–18). Cambridge University Press.
10. Boote, D. N., & Beile, P. (2005). Scholars Before Researchers: On the Centrality of the Dissertation Literature Review in Research Preparation. Educational Researcher, 34(6), 3-15.
11. Brooks, S. K., & Patel, S. S. (2022). Psychological consequences of the Flint Water Crisis: A scoping review. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 16(3), 1259-1269.
12. Budds, J. (2003). Are the debates on water privatization missing the point? Experiences from Africa, Asia and Latin America. Environment and Urbanization, 15(2), 87-114.
13. Budds, J., & Hinojosa, L. (2012). Restructuring and rescaling water governance in mining contexts: The co-production of waterscapes in Peru. Water Alternatives, 5(1), 119–137.
14. Budds, J. (2013). Water, Power, and the Production of Neoliberalism in Chile, 1973–2005. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 31(2), 301-318.
15. Bustamante, R. (2004). The water war: Resistance against privatisation of water in Cochabamba, Bolivia. Revista de Gestión Del Agua en América Latina, 1, 37-46.
16. Chattopadhyay, S. (2022). Negotiating Development: At the Interface of Power and Resistance. Içinde S. Chattopadhyay, Politics of Development and Forced Mobility (ss. 97-122). Springer International Publishing. Crocker, T. D., & Tschirhart, J. (1992). Ecosystems, externalities, and economies. Environmental and Resource Economics, 2, 551-567.
17. Dahlman, C. J. (1979). The Problem of Externality. The Journal of Law and Economics, 22(1), 141-162.
18. Dasmann, R. F. (1998). Environmental changes before and after the gold rush. California History, 77(4), 105-122.
19. Díaz-Combs, C., Mingolarra-Garaizar, A., & Perreault, T. (2024). Water governance in Latin America. İçinde Handbook on the Governance and Politics of Water Resources (ss. 261-273). Edward Elgar Publishing.
20. Dogmus, Ö. C. (2024). Water Politics and the On-Paper Hydropower Boom: Power, Corruption, and Sustainability in Emerging Economies. Taylor & Francis.
21. Durand, J. R., Bombardelli, F., Fleenor, W. E., Henneberry, Y., Herman, J., Jeffres, C., Leinfelder–Miles, M., Lund, J. R., Lusardi, R., & Manfree, A. D. (2020). Drought and the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, 2012–2016: Environmental review and lessons. San Francisco Estuary and Watershed Science, 18(2).
22. Esteban, E., Dinar, A., & Albiac, J. (2019). Determinants of water lobbying: İrrigators’ behavior in a water-stressed basin. Water Policy, 21(5), 1107-1122.
23. Fisher, W. F. (2017). Development and resistance in the Narmada Valley. İçinde Toward Sustainable Development? (ss. 3-46). Routledge.
24. Gill, M. S. (2017). Resettlement and Rehabilitation in Maharashtra for the Sardar Sarovar Narmada Project. İçinde Toward Sustainable Development? (ss. 231-264). Routledge.
25. Gokhale, V. (1991). India’s Narmada Valley hydro project. Eco decision, Environment and Policy Magazine, 1. https://www.veenago.com/nonfiction/Narmada_dam.pdf
26. Hagan, R. M., & Roberts, E. B. (1972). Ecological Impacts of Water Projects in California. Journal of the Irrigation and Drainage Division, 98(1), 25-48.
27. Harvey, D. (2010). Social justice and the city (C. 1). University of Georgia press.
28. Harvey, D. (2017). Marx, capital, and the madness of economic reason. Oxford University Press.
29. Hines, S. (2023). Cochabamba’s 2000 Water War in Historical Perspective. İçinde Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History.
30. Horton, R. (1931). The field, scope, and status of the science of hydrology. Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union, 12(1), 189-202.
31. Howitt, R., & Sunding, D. (2003). Water infrastructure and water allocation in California. California Agriculture: Dimensions and Issues, 181-190.
32. Kahrl, W. L. (1982). Water and power: The conflict over Los Angeles water supply in the Owens Valley. Univ of California Press.
33. Kanazawa, M. (2015). Golden rules: The origins of California water law in the gold rush. University of Chicago Press.
34. Kibaroglu, A., Kramer, A., & Scheumann, W. (Eds.). (2011). Turkey's Water Policy: National Frameworks and International Cooperation. Springer.
35. Kothari, A., & Bhartari, R. (1984). Narmada valley project: Development or destruction? Economic and Political Weekly, 907-920.
36. Köle, İ. H., & Vural, P. (2016). Çocukluk Çağı Kurşun Maruziyeti: Otistik Semptomlar, Ayırıcı Tanı ve Bir Yıllık Bireysel Eğitim Süreci. Uludağ Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Dergisi, 42(1), 29-34.
37. Leach, W. D., An, B. Y., & Tang, S. (2021). Evaluating California’s Sustainable Groundwater Management Act: The First Five Years of Governance and Planning. JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 57(6), 972-989. https://doi.org/10.1111/1752-1688.12967
38. Linton, J. (2010). What is Water? : The History of a Modern Abstraction. UBC Press.
39. Linton, J. (2014). Modern water and its discontents: A history of hydrosocial renewal. WIREs Water, 1, 111-120. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1009
40. Linton, J., & Budds, J. (2014). The hydrosocial cycle: Defining and mobilizing a relational-dialectical approach to water. Geoforum, 57, 170-180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.10.008
41. Littlefield, D. R. (1983). Water rights during the California gold rush: Conflicts over economic points of view. The Western Historical Quarterly, 14(4), 415-434.
42. Loftus, A. (2015). Violent Geographical Abstractions. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 33(2), 366-381.
43. Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1998). Marx & Engels Collected Works Vol 37: Karl Marx Capital: Volume 3. Lawrence & Wishart.
44. Masten, S. J., Davies, S. H., & Mcelmurry, S. P. (2016). Flint Water Crisis: What Happened and Why? Journal AWWA, 108(12), 22-34.
45. Matios, E., & Burney, J. (2017). Ecosystem Services Mapping for Sustainable Agricultural Water Management in California’s Central Valley. Environmental Science & Technology, 51(5), 2593-2601.
46. Maurer, E. P. (2007). Uncertainty in hydrologic impacts of climate change in the Sierra Nevada, California, under two emissions scenarios. Climatic change, 82(3), 309-325.
47. McKully, P. (1996). Silenced Rivers: The Ecology and Politics of Large Dams. Zed Books.
48. Mohai, P. (2018). Environmental justice and the Flint water crisis. Michigan Sociological Review, 32, 1-41.
49. Mollinga, P. P. (2008). Water, politics and development: Framing a political sociology of water resources management. Water Alternatives, 1(1), 7-23.
50. Mueller, T. (2012). The people’s climate summit in Cochabamba: A tragedy in three acts. Ephemera: Theory & Politics in Organization, 12.
51. Olivera, O., & Lewis, T. (2004). Cochabamba!: Water war in Bolivia. South End Press.
52. Orhan, G. (2013). Türkiye’de çevre politikaları: Değişen söylemler, değişmeyen öncelikler. Memleket Siyaset Yönetim, 8(19-20), 1-24.
53. Papandreou, A. A. (1998). Externality and institutions. Oxford University Press.
54. Parmar, M. (2024). The struggle for Narmada: An oral history of the Narmada Bachao Andolan, by Adivasi Leaders Keshavbhau and Kevalsingh Vasave The struggle for Narmada: an oral history of the Narmada Bachao Andolan, by Adivasi Leaders Keshavbhau and Kevalsingh Vasave , by Nandini Oza, Hyderabad, Orient BlackSwan, Social Movement Studies, 1-2.
55. Pathak, T. B., Maskey, M. L., Dahlberg, J. A., Kearns, F., Bali, K. M., & Zaccaria, D. (2018). Climate change trends and impacts on California agriculture: A detailed review. Agronomy, 8(3), 25.
56. Pauli, B. J. (2020). The Flint water crisis. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water, 7(3), e1420.
57. Perreault, T. (2014). What kind of governance for what kind of equity? Towards a theorization of justice in water governance. Water International, 39(2), 233–245.
58. Perreault, T., Boelens, R., & Jeroen, V. (2018). Introduction: Governmentality, Discourses and Struggles over Imaginaries and Water Knowledge. İçinde Water Justice (ss. 276-282).
59. Ragin, C. C. (1998). The logic of qualitative comparative analysis. International review of social history, 43(S6), 105-124.
60. Razavi, N. S. (2022). Water governance in Bolivia: Cochabamba since the water war. Routledge.
61. Reibel, M., Glickfeld, M., & Roquemore, P. (2021). Disadvantaged communities and drinking water: A case study of Los Angeles County. GeoJournal, 86, 1337-1354.
62. Simmons, E. S. (2016). Market reforms and water wars. World Politics, 68(1), 37-73.
63. Spronk, S. (2006). !` Cochabamba! Water War in Bolivia.
64. Sultana, F. (2018). Water justice: Why it matters and how to achieve it. Water International, 43(4), 483-493. Sultana, F., & Loftus, A. (2019). Water politics: Governance, justice and the right to water. Routledge.
65. Swyngedouw, E. (2004). Social Power and the Urbanization of Power: Flows of Power. Oxford University Press.
66. Swyngedouw, E. (2007). Technonatural revolutions: The scalar politics of Franco’s hydro-social dream for Spain, 1939–1975. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 32, 9-28.
67. Swyngedouw, E. (2009). The political economy and political ecology of the hydro-social cycle. Journal of Contemporary Water Research & Education, 142, 56-60.
68. Taş, M. A., & Akpınar, E. (2021). Burdur havzasındaki göllerde yaşanan seviye değişikliklerinin coğrafi bilgi sistemleri (cbs) ve uzaktan algılama (ua) ile tespiti. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi, 26(46), 37-54.
69. Thakur, T. K., Patel, D. K., Dutta, J., Kumar, A., Kaushik, S., Bijalwan, A., Fnais, M. S., Abdelrahman, K., & Ansari, M. J. (2021). Assessment of decadal land use dynamics of upper catchment area of Narmada River, the lifeline of Central India. Journal of King Saud University-Science, 33(2), 101322.
70. Thakur, V. (2024). Engaging the postcolonial state: Dam, forced relocation, and the Bhil Adivasi Group of the Narmada River Valley, India. Globalizations, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2024.2316473
71. Tobin, S. (2017). A path cut by water: The making of the Cochabamba water war through internationalization, postcolonialism and decoloniality. Senior Capstone Projects. 628
72. Turan, C. (2021). Kurşun Zehirlenmesi. Turkiye Klinikleri Pediatric Emergency-Special Topics, 2(3), 136-141.
73. Upadhyaya, H. (2018). Large dams as ‘temples of modern India’?: An obituary to Nehruvian techno-political dreams and a plea for Gandhian ethics. İçinde Intractable Conflicts in Contemporary India (ss. 86-103). Routledge India.
74. Vasquez-Rodriguez, N. (2024). Decolonizing Water Governance: Water Quality of Indigenous Peoples in California and Arizona.
75. Vicuna, S., Maurer, E. P., Joyce, B., Dracup, J. A., & Purkey, D. (2007). The Sensitivity of California Water Resources to Climate Change Scenarios. JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 43(2), 482-498. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2007.00038.x
76. Wade, R. H. (2021). Muddy waters: İnside the world bank as it struggled with the Narmada irrigation and resettlement projects, Western India. İçinde Social Development in the World Bank: Essays in Honor of Michael M. Cernea (ss. 265-313). Springer International Publishing Cham.
77. Wittfogel, K. A. (2017). The hydraulic civilizations. İçinde The Structure of Political Geography (ss. 442-449). Routledge.
78. Worster, D. (2019). Excerpt From Rivers Of Empire: Water, Aridity, And The Growth Of The American West. İçinde P. C. Mancall (Ed.), Land of Rivers (ss. 200-203). Cornell University Press.
79. Zwarteveen, M., & Boelens, R. (2014). Defining, researching and struggling for water justice. Water International, 39(2), 143–158.