İngilizceyi Yabancı Dil Olarak Öğrenenlerin Üstbilişleri Üzerine Bir Betimleyici Çalışma

Öz

Bilişin düzenlenmesi (Schraw & Dennison, 1994), bireylerin planlama ve strateji kullanımını içeren üstbilişin iki bölümünden biridir. Dil öğretiminde eleştirel düşünme veya strateji kullanımı gibi öğrencilerin bilişsel becerileri geliştirilmekte olduğundan, üst biliş aynı zamanda dil öğrenimi araştırmalarında yer alan bir konu olmaktadır (ör., Ellis, Denton & Bond, 2014; Zhang, 2001). Okuma, yabancı dil öğretiminin strateji kullanımını gerektiren bir parçasıdır ve bu nedenle öğrencilerin bilişsel becerilerini ortaya koyan çeşitli stratejiler dil sınıflarında öğretilmektedir. Buna rağmen, öğrencilerin bu stratejileri nasıl ve ne ölçüde kullandıkları hala belirsizliğini korumaktadır (Yayli, 2016). Bu nedenle, bu betimleyici çalışma, öğrencilerin okumada kullandıkları strateji kullanımını ve okuma sırasında bilişsel süreçleri araştırmayı hedeflemektedir. Çalışmanın örneklemini, Türkiye'de bir devlet üniversitesinin yabancı dil programında İngilizce öğrenen (15 üst seviye, 15 alt seviye) 30 öğrenci oluşturmaktadır. Katılımcılara beş haftalık bir uygulamada üç genel okuma stratejisi öğretilmiştir. Bu süre sonunda katılımcılara seviyelerine uygun okuma parçaları verilmiştir ve sesli-düşünme yöntemi kullanılarak katılımcıların strateji kullanımı incelenmiştir. Çalışmanın bulguları, okuma becerisinde strateji kullanımının dil yeterliliğiyle değil; iyi ya da kötü bir okuyucu olmayla ilgili olduğunu ve de stratejilerin öğretilmesinin faydalı olduğunu ortaya koymuştur.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• İngilizceyi yabancı dil olarak öğrenenler,Üstbiliş,Okuma,Strateji kullanımı

Use of Cognitive Strategies in Reading: A Descriptive Study on EFL Learners’ Metacognition

Öz

Regulation of cognition (Schraw & Dennison, 1994) that involves planning and strategy use of individuals is one of the two aspects of metacognition. Language programs are likely to promote learners’ cognitive skills such as thinking critically or use of strategies, thus, metacognition is also involved in second language research (eg., Ellis, Denton & Bond, 2014; Zhang, 2001). One of the language skills in which strategies are commonly used is reading, so various strategies are taught in language classes. Although reading strategies are part of instruction in language teaching, it is still unexplored how or to what extent learners use them especially in EFL setting (Yayli, 2016). Thus, this paper presents a descriptive study that explores both EFL learners’ strategy use and cognitive processes while reading. Participants of the study were 30 students (15 high level learners and 15 low-level learners) learning English at the language program of a state university in Turkey. The participants were taught three global reading strategies in a five-week study and their strategy use was examined through think-aloud protocols after presenting them reading passages appropriate for their levels. Overall, findings put forward that strategy use in reading was related to being a good or bad reader rather than language proficiency and instruction was found to play a role in these learners’ strategy use.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• EFL learners,Metacognition,Reading,Strategy use

Kaynakça

1. Afflerbach, P., & Johnston, P. (1984). On the use of verbal reports in reading research. Journal of Reading Behavior, 16(4), 307-322.
2. Akin, A., Abaci, R., & Çetin, B. (2007). The validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the metacognitive awareness inventory. Kuram ve Uygulamada Egitim Bilimleri, 7(2), 671-678.
3. Anderson, N. J. (1991). Individual differences in strategy use in second language reading and testing. The Modern Language Journal, 75(4), 460-472.
4. Anderson, N. J. (2002). The role of metacognition in second language teaching and learning. ERIC Digest. 1-5.
5. Bishara, S., & Kaplan, S. (2018). The relationship of locus of control and metacognitive knowledge of math with math achievements. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 1-18.
6. Bereiter, C., & Bird, M. (1985). Use of thinking aloud in identification and teaching of reading comprehension strategies. Cognition and Instruction, 2(2), 131-156.
7. Block, E. L. (1992). See how they read: Comprehension monitoring of L1 and L2 readers. TESOL Quarterly, 26(2), 319-343.
8. Crain-Thoreson,C., Lippman, M. Z., & McClendon-Magnuson, D. (1997). Windows on comprehension: Reading comprehension processes as revealed by two think-aloud procedures. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(4), 579-591.

9. Cook, E., Kennedy, E., & McGuire, S. Y. (2013). Effect of teaching metacognitive learning strategies on performance in general chemistry courses. Journal of Chemical Education, 90(8), 961-967.
10. Cubukcu, F. (2008). Enhancing vocabulary development and reading comprehension through metacognitive strategies. Issues in Educational Research, 18(1), 1-11.
11. Davey, B. (1983). Think-aloud: Modeling the cognitive processes of reading comprehension. Journal of Reading, 27(1), 44- 47.
12. Davis, J. N., & Bistodeau, L. (1993). How do L1 and L2 reading differ? Evidence from think aloud protocols. The Modern Language Journal, 77(4), 459-472.
13. Flavell, J. H. (1987). Speculations about the nature and development of metacognition. In E. F. Weinert & R. H. Kluwe (ed.) Metacognition, motivation, and understanding (pp. 21-29) Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
14. Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906-911.
15. Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. E. (2000). How to design and evaluate research in education. New York: McGraw.
16. Garner, R. (1988). Verbal-report data on cognitive and metacognitive strategies. In C. E. Weinstein, E. T. Goetz & P. A. Alexander (Ed.) Learning and study strategies: Issues in assessment, instruction and evaluation (pp. 63-76). New York: Elsevier.
17. Ghavamnia, M., Ketabi, S. & Tavakoli, M. (2013). L2 reading strategies used by Iranian EFL learners: A think-aloud study, Reading Psychology, 34(4), 355-378.
18. Griffin, P., & Care, E. (Eds.). (2014). Assessment and teaching of 21st century skills: Methods and approach. New York: Springer.
19. Hacker, D. J. (1998). Definitions and empirical foundations. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky & A. C. Graesser (Ed.). Metacognition in educational theory and practice (pp. 1-23). New York: Routledge.
20. Isaacson, R. M & Fujita, F. (2006). Metacognitive knowledge monitoring and self-regulated learning: Academic success and reflections on learning, Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 6(1), 39-55.
21. Kocaman, O. & Beşkardeşler, S. (2016). Metacognitive awareness of reading strategy use by English language teaching students in Turkish context: Sakarya University sample. Sakarya University Journal of Education, 6(2), 254 269.
22. Koç, S. & Koç, Ö. (2016). Master skills: Reading-writing. Ankara: Blackswan Publishing.
23. Ku, K. Y., & Ho, I. T. (2010). Metacognitive strategies that enhance critical thinking. Metacognition and Learning, 5(3), 251-267.
24. Landine, J., & Stewart, J. (1998). Relationship between metacognition, motivation, locus of control, self-efficacy, and academic achievement. Canadian Journal of Counselling, 32(3), 200-212.
25. Lau, K. L. (2006). Reading strategy use between Chinese good and poor readers: A think‐aloud study. Journal of Research in Reading, 29(4), 383-399.
26. Lin, L. C., & Yu, W. Y. (2015). A think‐aloud study of strategy use by EFL college readers reading Chinese and English texts. Journal of Research in Reading, 38(3), 286-306.
27. Little, D. (1995). Learning as dialogue: The dependence of learner autonomy on teacher autonomy. System, 23(2), 175-181.
28. Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, C. A. (2002). Assessing students' metacognitive awareness of reading strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 249-259.
29. Oster, L. (2001). Using the think-aloud for reading instruction. The Reading Teacher, 55(1), 64-69.
30. Oxford, R.L., & Ehrman, M.E., (1995). Adults' language learning strategies in an intensive foreign language program in the United States. System, 23, 359-386.
31. Oxford, R. L. (2003). Language learning styles and strategies: Concepts and relationships. IRAL, 41(4), 271-278.
32. Park, M. (2018). Innovative assessment of aviation English in a virtual world: Windows into cognitive and metacognitive strategies. ReCALL, 30(2), 1-18.
33. Schraw, G., & Dennison, R. S. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19(4), 460-475.
34. Schraw, G., Crippen, K. J., & Hartley, K. (2006). Promoting self-regulation in science education: Metacognition as part of a broader perspective on learning. Research in Science Education, 36(1), 111-139.
35. Soars, L. & Soars, J. (2013). New headway (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
36. Sperling, R. A., Howard, B. C., Staley, R. and DuBois, N. (2004). Metacognition and self-regulated learning, Educational Research and Evaluation, 10(2), 117-139.
37. Trilling, B., & Fadel, C. (2012). 21st century skills: Learning for life in our times. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons.
38. Wang, Y. H. (2016). Reading strategy use and comprehension performance of more successful and less successful readers: A think-aloud Study. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 16(5), 1789-1813.
39. Wenden, A. L. (2001). Metacognitive knowledge in SLA: The neglected variable In M. P. Breen (ed) Learner contributions to language learning: New directions in research (pp. 44-64). New York: Routledge.
40. Yayli, D. (2010). A think-aloud study: Cognitive and metacognitive reading strategies of ELT department students. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 38, 234-251.
41. Young, A. & Fry, J. D. (2008). Metacognitive awareness and academic achievement in college students. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 8(2) 1-10.
42. Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 3-17.
43. Zhang, L. J. (2001). Awareness in reading: EFL students' metacognitive knowledge of reading strategies in an acquisition-poor environment. Language Awareness, 10(4), 268-288.
44. Zhang, L. J., & Wu, A. (2009). Chinese senior high school EFL students' metacognitive awareness and reading-strategy use. Reading in a Foreign Language, 21(1), 37-59.