Göçmen Kaçakçılığı Kuramlarında Çok Boyutlu Yaklaşımların Gerekliliği

Öz

İstek, ihtiyaç ve arzuları geçmişte birçok kez insanı göçe sevk etmiştir. Bu durum günümüzde de geçerliliğini korumaktadır. Diğer yandan son zamanlarda insan hareketliliklerinin çeşitlerinde daha önce görülmemiş belirgin artışlar gözlenmektedir. Bu çeşitliliğin neden olduğu sınıflandırma ve kavramsallaştırma karmaşası, göç konusunu toplumsal bilimlerin tartışmalı bir sahası hâline getirmektedir. Bazı durumlarda bir kuramın önermeleri diğerini geçersiz kılarken çoğu durumda birbirlerinin tamamlayıcısı olabilmektedir. Bu yüzden göç ve göçmen kaçakçılığı sorununa ilişkin son zamanlarda yapılan kuramsal çalışmalar sıklıkla çok boyutlu bir yaklaşımın benimsenmesi gerektiği üzerinde durmaktadırlar. Sosyal ağların insan hareketlilikleri üzerindeki önemine işaret edilse de çok boyutlu çalışmalarda esasen bilişim ağlarındaki gelişmelerle kişiler arası sosyal ağlar arasındaki etkileşim üzerinde yeterince durulmamaktadır. Göçmen kaçakçılığı kuramlarında çok boyutlu yaklaşımların önemi ve gerekliliğini vurgulayan bu çalışmada, ağ algoritmalarının eşleşmesi olarak adlandırılan sürecin sağladığı ölçülebilirliğin birbirlerine eleştirel gözle bakan bu çok yönlü ve iki kutuplu yaklaşımlar arasında bir yakınsama sağlayarak deneysel araştırmaların yapılmasına katkıda bulunacağı öngörülmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Göçmen kaçakçılığı
• çok boyutlu yaklaşımlar
• ağ algoritmalarının eşleşmesi
• yapılaşma kuramı

The Necessity of Multidimensional Approaches in Migrant Smuggling Theories

Öz

Wishes, needs and desires have led people to emigrate many times in the past. This situation is still valid today. On the other hand, recently, there are significant increases in the types of human mobility that have not been seen before. Typological and terminological complexity caused by this diversity makes migration studies a challenging field for the social sciences. The propositions of one theory may preclude another in some cases. But,they can be complementary in most cases. Therefore, recent theoretical studies on migration and migrant smuggling issues often suggest that a multi-dimensional approach should be adopted. Although the importance of social networks on human mobility is pointed out in multi-dimensional studies, they do not adequately focus on the interaction between social networks and developments in information networks. In this study, which emphasizes the importance and necessity of multidimensional approaches in migrant smuggling theories, it is predicted that the measurability provided by the process called interlocking network algorithms will contribute to the conducting of experimental studies by providing a convergence between these multi-dimensional and bipolar approaches that cast critical eye on each other.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Migrant smuggling
• Multi-dimensional approaches
• interlocking network algorithms
• structuration theory

Kaynakça

1. Akkayan, T. (1979). Göç ve Değişme. İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Yayınları. No: 2573, İstanbul: Edebiyat Fakültesi Basımevi.
2. Aronowitz, A. (2009). Human Trafficking, Human Misery: The Global Trade in Human Beings. G. R. Newman (Ed.), Westport, CT: Preager.
3. Australian Institute of Criminology. (2008). People smuggling versus trafficking in persons, what is the difference? Transnational Crime Brief, Research Paper No. 2, Canberra: AIC.
4. Baird, T. (2013). Theoretical approaches to human smuggling. DIIS Working Paper, No. 2013/10, Cophenagen: Danish Institute for International Studies.
5. Bakewell, O. (2010). Some reflection on structure and agency in migration theory. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 36(10).
6. Bakewell, O. (2015). Göç kuramında yapı ve fail kavramları üzerine bazı görüşler. Göç Araştırmaları Dergisi, 1(2).
7. Bilecen, B. (2009). Human smuggling networks operating between Middle East and the European Union: Evidence from Iranian, Iraqi and Afghani migrants in the Netherlands. Center on Migration, Citizenship and Development, Working Paper, No. 62, Bielefeld: Universität Bielefeld, Fak. für Soziologie, Centre on Migration, Citizenship and Development (COMCAD).
8. Bouteillet-Paquet, D. (2011). Smuggling of migrants A global review and annotated bibliography. Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.

9. Castles, S. and Miller, M. J. (2003) The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. (Third Edition). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
10. Columb, S. Organ trafficking in Egypt: They locked me in and took my kidney. The Guardian. (2019, 9 February). Erişim adresi: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/feb/09/trafficking-people-smugglers-organs-egypt-mediterranean-refugees-migrants
11. Costantino, F. (2014). Which factors drive illegal immigration? An amprical analysis of the US and the EU (Doctoral Dissertation Pompeu, Fabra University, 2014).
12. Danish Refugee Council. (June, 2017). Human Smuggling - No victimless crime: Voices from those on the move: A compilation of quotes and stories from migrants and refugees migrating out of the Horn of Africa. Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat Briefing Paper No. 4, Horn of Africa and Yemen: RMMS. Erişim adresi: http://www.mixedmigration.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/017_human-smuggling.pdf
13. David, F., Monzini, P. (1999). Rapid assessment: Human smuggling and trafficking from the Philippines. Prepared for the Tenth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders by United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute and Australian Institute of Criminology, Vienna.
14. De Haan, A., Rogaly, B. (Eds.). (2002). Labour Mobility and Rural Society. International Development, 15(5).
15. De Haas, H. (2007). The myth of invasion: Irregular migration from West Africa to the Maghreb and the European Union, International Migration Institute Research Report, Oxford: University of Oxford, 7. Erişim adresi: http://www.temaasyl.se.
16. Ethier, W. J. (1986). Illegal immigration: The host-country problem, American Economic Review, 76(1).
17. European Commission, Directorate-General for Migration and Home Affairs. (2015). A study on smuggling of migrants: Characteristics, responses and cooperation with third countries, Final Report.
18. Faist, T. (2010). The crucial meso- level. In M. Martiniello and J. Rath (Eds.), Selected studies in international migration and immigrant incorporation, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
19. Friebel, G., Guriev, S. (2004). Smuggling humans: A theory of debt-financed migration. Institute for the Study of Labour. IZA DP No. 1025, Bonn: IZA.
20. Gallagher, A. (2002) Trafficking, smuggling and human rights: tricks and treaties. Forced Migration Review, 12(8). Erişim adresi: https://www.fmreview.org
21. Go, E. (2001). A review of the United Nations recommendations for statistics on international migration. United Nations Statistics Division. Erişim adresi: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/meetings/egm/
22. Hagen-Zanker, J. (2008). Why do people migrate? A review of the theoretical literature. Munich Personal RePEc Archive No. 28197, Munchen: MPRA.
23. Guzman, M. G., Haslag, J., Orrenius, P. M. (2002). Coyote crossing: The role of smugglers in illegal immigration and border enforcement. Research Working Paper RWP 02-04, Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City.
24. Heckmann, F. (2003). Methodological problems in the study of illegal migration. European forum for migration studies. The Center for Development and Migration Working Paper No. #03-09e, NJ: Princeton University.
25. Heckmann, F. (2007). Towards a better understanding of human smuggling. International Migration, Integration and Social Cohesion in Europe (IMISCOE) Policy Brief, No:5, Bamberg: europäisches forum für migrationsstudien (efms) Institut an der Universität Bamberg.
26. Herman, E. (2006). Migration as a family business: The role of personal networks in the mobility phase of migration. International Migration, 44(4).
27. İçduygu, A. (February, 2003). Irregular migration in Turkey. International Organisation for Migration. Migration Research Series, No. 12, Edited by the Research and Publications Division, Geneva: IOM.
28. King, R. (2012). Special issue: Re-making migration theory: Transitions, intersections and cross-fertilisations. Population, Space and Place, 18(2). Erişim adresi: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/psp.685/abstract
29. Koser, K. (September, 2005). Irregular migration, state security and human security. A paper prepared for the Policy Analysis and Research Programme of the Global Commission on International Migration, London. Erişim adresi: https://www.iom.int
30. Kyle, D. J., Goldstein R. (2011). Migration industries: A comparison of the Ecuador-US and Ecuador-Spain cases. Research Report Case Study, EU-US Immigration Systems 2011/15, San Domenico di Fiesole (FI): Robert Schuman Center for Advanced Studies.
31. Massey, D. S., Arango, J., Hugo, G., Kouaouci, A., Pellegrino, A., Taylor, J. E. (1993). Theories of international migration: A review and appraisal. Population and Development Review, 19(3).
32. Mo, P. H. (2011). International human trafficking: Theory and solution, Hong Kong Baptist University, Munich Personal RePEc Archive, No: 35104, Munchen: MPRA. Erişim adresi: http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/35104/
33. Narlı, A. N. (2003). Human smuggling and migration of illegal labour to Turkey. In Crushing crime in South Eastern Europe: A struggle of domestic, regional and European Dimension. Vienna: Austrian National Defence Academy in co-operation with the PfP Consortium of Defense Academies and Security Studies Institutes. Erişim adresi:http://www.bundesheer.at
34. Narlı, N. (2006). Human trafficking and smuggling: The process, the actors and the victim profile. In Trafficking in persons in South East Europe-A threat to human security. 11th Workshop of the Study Group Regional Stability in South East Europe, Istanbul and Vienna: National Defence Academy and Bureau for Security Policy at the Austrian Ministry of Defence in co-operation with Center for Strategic Research, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Turkey. Erişim adresi: https://www.files.ethz.ch
35. Naylor, R. T. (2000). Economic and organized crime: Challenges for criminal justice. Canada Department of Justice, Research and Statistics Division, Strategic Issue Series No.rp02-12e, Montreal.
36. Office for National Statistics. (2014). A Comparison of international estimates of long-term migration, Erişim adresi: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk, http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171776_387273.pdf
37. Olejarova, E. (2007). Labor migration as a socio-economic-phenomenon-Slovakia and the Czech Republic in comparative perspective. Master’s Thesis, European University, Budapest.
38. Öztürk, F., Ardor, H. N. (2007). Suç sanayinin bir alanı insan ticareti. Türkiye açısından bir değerlendirme, Ekonomik Yaklaşım, 18(62).
39. Perruchoud, R. (Ed.). (2004). Glossary on Migration. Erişim adresi: http://publications.iom.int/bookstore/free/IML_1_EN.pdf
40. Rousseau, C., Said, T. M., Gagné, M. J., and Bibeau, G. (1998). Between myth and madness: the premigration dream of leaving among young Somali refugees. Culture. Medicine and Psychiatry, 22(4).
41. Salt, J. (2000). Trafficking and human smuggling: A European perspective. International Migration, 38(3).
42. Salt, J., Stein, J. (1997). Migration as a business: The case of trafficking. International Migration. 35(4).
43. Schloenhardt, A. (November, 1999). Organized crime and the business of migrant trafficking: An economic analysis. Australian Institute of Criminology, paper prepared for the occasional seminar, Canberra: AIC.
44. Sewell, W. H. (July, 1992). A theory of structure: Duality agency and transformation, American Journal of Sociology, 98(1). Erişim adresi: http://www.ir.rochelleterman.com
45. Sheldon, Z., Chin, Ko-Lin (2002). The social organization of Chinese human smuggling-A cross national study. San Diego, CA: San Diego State University.
46. Siskin, A., Viña, S. (2005). Border security: Apprehensions of other than Mexican aliens. Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, Order Code RL33097. Erişim adresi: http://trac.syr.edu/immigration
47. Spener, D. (2004). Mexican migrant-smuggling: A cross-border cottage industry. Journal of International Migration and Integration. 5(3). Erişim adresi: http://www.trinity.edu
48. Staring, R. (2000). International migration, undocumented immigrants and immigrant entrepreneurship. In Jan Rath (Ed.), Immigrant business: The economic political and social environment. Macmillan Press Ltd.: Amsterdam.
49. Stoyanova, V. (2011). Complementary protection for victims of human trafficking under the European Convention on Human Rights. Goettingen Journal of International Law, 3(2).
50. Subcommittee on Oversight, Investigations, and Management of the Committee on Homeland Security House of Representatives. (November, 2012). A line in the sand: Confronting the threat at the southwest border, 112. Congress, Second Session, Washington, D.C.: US Government Publishing Office. Erişim adresi: https://www.govinfo.gov/
51. Tailby R. (May, 2001). Organised crime and people smuggling/ Trafficking to Australia. Australian Institute of Criminology, Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, No. 208, Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. Erişim adresi: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/
52. Türk Dil Kurumu. Göç. Güncel Türkçe Sözlük içinde. Erişim adresi: Türk Dil Kurumu. Göç. Güncel Türkçe Sözlük içinde. Erişim adresi: http://www.tdk.gov.tr/
53. United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner. (2010). Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, article 3(a) Erişim adresi: http://www.ohchr.org/EN
54. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Regional Office. (January, 2011). The role of organized crime in the smuggling of migrants from West Africa to the European Union. Vienna: English, Publishing and Library Section, United Nations Office. Erişim adresi: https://www.unodc.org/
55. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2010a). A short introduction to migrant smuggling. Issue paper drafted in the framework of UNODC's Global Programme against Smuggling of Migrants by Marika McAdam, UNODC, Anti-Human Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling Unit (AHTMSU), and Sebastian Baumeister, UNODC, Africa and the Middle East Unit (AMEU) under the supervision of Riikka Puttonen, UNODC, AHTMSU. Erişim adresi: https://www.unodc.org/
56. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2010b). Toolkit to combat smuggling of migrants: Tool 9 prevention of the smuggling of migrants. Vienna: English, Publishing and Library Section, United Nations Office at Vienna, 5. Erişim adresi: https://www.unodc.org/
57. United Nations Population Division. (2017). International migrant stock at mid-year by sex and by major area, region, country or area, 1990-2015. Erişim adresi: https://www.google.com/
58. Van Liempt, G. (June, 2004). Human trafficking in Europe: An economic perspective. International Labour Organisation, InFocus Programme on Promoting the Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, Working Paper, No. 31, Geneva: International Labour Organization.
59. Väyrynen, R. (2003). Illegal immigration, human trafficking and organized crime. World Institute for Economic Research, Discussion Paper No. 2003/72, Helsinki: UNU-WIDER.
60. Webb, S., Burrows, J. (July, 2009). Organised immigration crime: A post-conviction study. Research Report No. 15, Home Office, London. 10. Erişim adresi: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government
61. Wright, R., Ellis, M. (2016). Perspectives on migration theory: Geography. In. J. Michael White (Ed.), International Handbook of Migration and Population Distribution, NY: Springer Science+Business Media, 12. Erişim adresi: http://www.google.com.tr/
62. Zhang, S., Chin, Ko-lin. (2004). Characteristics of Chinese human smugglers. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice National Institute of Justice.