Yumurta Kabuğunun Yapısı ve Mikrobiyal Kontaminasyon Yolları

Öz

Tavuk (Gallus gallus domesticus) yumurtası dış ve iç olmak üzere iki ana yapıdan meydana gelmektedir. Yumurtanın dış yapısını oluşturan kütikül, kalsifiye kabuk ve kabuk zarları mikrobiyal kontaminasyona karşı fiziksel ve kimyasal doğal bir bariyer oluşturmaktadır. Bu katmanların kalitesi özellikle mikroorganizmaların kontaminasyonunu ve yumurta içine penetrasyonunu belirlemektedir. Beslenme, kümes yapısı, çevre koşulları ve bulaşıcı hastalıklar kabuğun kalitesini doğrudan etkilemekte ve kirli, kırık veya şekli bozuk yumurta kabuğu oluşumuna neden olmaktadırlar. Düşük kabuk kalitesi ise tüketici tercihini olumsuz etkilerken aynı zamanda mikrobiyal kontaminasyon riskini artırmakta, gıda güvenliğini ve halk sağlığını tehdit etmektedir. Yumurtanın mikrobiyal kontaminasyonu endojen ve eksojen olmak üzere iki yolla gerçekleşmektedir. Yumurtlamadan hemen sonra yumurta kabuğu özellikle eksojen yolla kontamine olmaktadır. Tek sağlık konsepti içerisinde çiftlikten çatala gıda güvenliğinin ve halk sağlığının korunabilmesi için dekontaminasyon ve sanitasyon metotları ile biyogüvenlik kurallarına ve yasal düzenlemelere uyularak mikrobiyal kontaminasyon riski azaltılabilmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Yumurta kabuğu
• Kütikül
• Campylobacter
• Gıda mevzuat
• Biyogüvenlik

The Structure and Microbial Contamination Routes of Eggshell

Öz

Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) egg consists of two main structures: external and internal. The external structures (eggshell) of the egg include cuticle, calcified shell and shell membranes which are natural physical and chemical barriers against microbial contamination. The quality of these structures plays a crucial role in the contamination and penetration of microorganisms into the egg. Nutrition, cage system, environmental conditions and infectious diseases directly influence the eggshell quality. While dirty, cracked or deformed eggshells negatively affect the preference of consumers, it also increases the risk of microbial contamination and threatens food safety and public health. Microbial contamination of eggs occurs in two main ways as endogenous and exogenous. Eggshell is contaminated especially exogenously with microorganisms immediately after oviposition. Various decontamination and sanitation methods, biosafety rules and legal regulations reduce the risk of microbial contamination for food safety and public health from farm to fork within the one health concept.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Eggshell
• Cuticle
• Campylobacter
• Food legislation
• Biosafety

Kaynakça

1. Aygun A. 2017. The eggshell microbial activity. In: P. Hester, editor. Egg Innovations and Strategies for Improvements, USA, Elsevier Academic Press; pp.135-144.
2. Ayim-Akonor M, Akonor PT. 2014. Egg consumption: patterns, preferences and perceptions among consumers in Accra metropolitan area. International Food Research Journal, 21(4): 1457-1463.
3. Baghban-Kanani P, Hosseintabar-Ghasemabad B, Azimi-Youvalari S, Seidavi A, Ragni M, Laudadio V, Tufarelli V. 2019. Effects of using Artemisia annua leaves, probiotic blend, and organic acids on performance, egg quality, blood biochemistry, and antioxidant status of laying hens. The Journal of Poultry Science, 56(2):120-127.
4. Bain MM, Zheng J, Zigler M, Whenham N, Quinlan-Pluck F, Jones AC, Roberts M, Icken W, Olori VE, Dunn IC. 2019. Cuticle deposition improves the biosecurity of eggs through the laying cycle and can be measured on hatching eggs without compromising embryonic development. Poultry Science, 98(4):1775-1784.
5. Baron F, Jan S. 2011. Egg and egg product microbiology. In: Y. Nys, M. Bain and F. Van Immerseel, editors. Improving the Safety and Quality of Eggs and Egg Products Vol 1. England, Woodhead Publishing; pp.330-350.
6. Beuchat LR, Cousin MA. 2001. Yeasts and molds In: Y. Salfinger and M.L. Tortorello, editors. Compendium of Methods for the Microbiological Examination of Foods. USA, American Public Health Association; pp.209-215.
7. Cordeiro C. 2015. Eggshell membrane proteins provide innate immune protection, Doctoral dissertation, Université d'Ottawa/University of Ottawa.
8. Dastar B, Khosravi A, Boldajie F, Ghoorchi T. 2016. Effect of calcium with and without probiotic, lactose, or both on organ and body weights, immune response and caecal microbiota in moulted laying hens. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 100(2):243-250.

9. De Reu K, Grijspeerdt K, Heyndrickx M, Zoons J, De Baere K, Uyttendaele M, Debevere J, Herman L. 2005. Bacterial eggshell contamination in conventional cages, furnished cages and aviary housing systems for laying hens. British Poultry Science, 46(2):149-155.
10. De Reu K, Grijspeerdt K, Messens W, Heyndrickx M, Uyttendaele M, Debevere J, Herman L. 2006. Eggshell factors influencing eggshell penetration and whole egg contamination by different bacteria, including salmonella enteritidis. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 112(3):253-260.
11. De Reu K, Rodenburg, TB, Grijspeerdt K, Messens W, Heyndrickx M, Tuyttens FAM, Sonck B, Zoons J, Herman L. 2009. Bacteriological contamination, dirt, and cracks of eggshells in furnished cages and noncage systems for laying hens: An international on-farm comparison. Poultry Science, 88(11):2442-2448.
12. Devegowda G, Ravikiran D. 2008. Mycotoxins and eggshell quality: cracking the problem. World Mycotoxin Journal, 1(2):203-208.
13. Doğruer Y, Telli N, Telli AE, Kahraman HA, Güner A. 2015. Pastörize sıvı yumurta ile kabuklu yumurtanın bazı kalite özellikleri bakımından kıyaslanması. Eurasian Journal of Veterinary Sciences, 31(3):177-83.
14. Dunn IC, Woolliams JA, Wilson PW, Icken W, Cavero D, Jones AC, Quinlan-Pluck F, Williams G, Olori V, Bain MM. 2019. Genetic variation and potential for genetic improvement of cuticle deposition on chicken eggs. Genetics Selection Evolution, 51(1):25.
15. Eddin AS, Ibrahim SA, Tahergorabi R. 2019. Egg quality and safety with an overview of edible coating application for egg preservation. Food Chemistry, 296(30):29-39.
16. European Union. 2008a. Council Regulation (EC) as regards marketing standards for eggs. Latest updated: 25.11.2017, No: 1234/2007.
17. European Union. 2008b. Council Regulation (EC) on the control of salmonella and other specified food-borne zoonotic agents. Latest updated: 01.07.2013, No 2160/2003.
18. European Union. 2011. Regulation (EC) as regards a Union target for the reduction of the prevalence of certain Salmonella serotypes in laying hens of Gallus gallus. Latest updated: 10/03/2019, No: 517/2011.
19. Fearne A, Lavelle D, 1996. Perceptions of food “quality” and the power of marketing communication: results of consumer research on a branded‐egg concept. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 5(2):29-42.
20. Gıda, Tarım ve Hayvancılık Bakanlığı. 2014. Salmonella ve Belirlenmiş Diğer Gıda Kaynaklı Zoonotik Etkenlerin Kontrol Altına Alınması Hakkında Yönetmelik. Resmî Gazete, Tarih 27.03.2014, Sayı: 28954.
21. Hansstein F. 2011. Profiling the egg consumer: attitudes, perceptions and behaviours. In: Y. Nys, M. Bain and F. Van Immerseel, editors. Improving the Safety and Quality of Eggs and Egg Products Vol 1, England, Woodhead Publishing; pp.39-61.
22. Karadal F, Onmaz NE, Hızlısoy H, Yıldırım Y, Al S, Gönülalan Z, Ülger İ. 2018. Niğde ve Kayseri’de satışa sunulan köy ve market yumurtalarının mikrobiyolojik kalitesi. Erciyes Üniversitesi Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi, 15(1):51-57.
23. Korkmaz S. 2015. Yumurta tavuğu rasyonlarına ilave edilen Maca (lepidium meyenii) tozunun performans, yumurta kalitesi ve bazı kan parametreleri üzerine etkisi. Doktora Tezi, İstanbul Üniversitesi, Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Veteriner Fakültesi Bölümü.
24. Liu YC, Chen TH, Wu YC, Lee YC, Tan FJ. 2016. Effects of egg washing and storage temperature on the quality of eggshell cuticle and eggs. Food Chemistry, 211: 687-693.
25. Mallet S, Guesdon V, Ahmed AMH, Nys Y. 2006. Comparison of eggshell hygiene in two housing systems: Standard and furnished cages. British Poultry Science, 47(1):30-35.
26. Mayes FJ, Takeballı MA, 1983. Microbial contamination of the hen's egg: a review. Journal of Food Protection, 46(12): 1092-1098.
27. Messens W, Gittins J, Leleu S, Sparks N. 2011. Egg decontamination by washing. In: F. Van Immerseel, Y. Nys and M. Bain, editors. Improving the Safety and Quality of Eggs and Egg Products Vol 2. England, Woodhead Publishing; pp.163-180.
28. Munoz A, Dominguez-Gasca N, Jimenez-Lopez C, Rodriguez-Navarro AB. 2015. Importance of eggshell cuticle composition and maturity for avoiding trans-shell Salmonella contamination in chicken eggs. Food Control, 55, 31-38.
29. Musgrove MT, Jones DR, Northcutt JK, Cox NA, Harrison MA. 2004. Identification of Enterobacteriaceae and related organisms from rinses of eggs collected during processing in commercial shell egg processing plants in the southeastern United States. Poultry Science, 83, 157.
30. Musgrove MT. 2011. Microbiology and safety of table eggs. In: F. Van Immerseel, Y. Nys and M. Bain, editors. Improving the Safety and Quality of Eggs and Egg Products Vol 2. England Woodhead Publishing; pp.3-33.
31. Musgrove MT, Jones DR, Shaw JD, Sheppard M, Harrison MA. 2009. Enterobacteriaceae and related organisms isolated from nest run cart shelves in commercial shell egg processing facilities. Poultry Science, 88(10):2113-2117.
32. Nys, Y, Guyot, N. 2011. Egg formation and chemistry. In Y. Nys, M. Bain and F. Van Immerseel, editors. Improving the Safety and Quality of Eggs and Egg Products Vol 1. Cambridge Woodhead Publishing; pp.83-132.
33. Park S, Choi S, Kim H, Kim Y, Kim BS, Beuchat LR, Ryu JH. 2015. Fate of mesophilic aerobic bacteria and Salmonella enterica on the surface of eggs as affected by chicken feces, storage temperature, and relative humidity. Food Microbiology, 48: 200-205.
34. Pesavento G, Calonico C, Runfola M, Lo Nostro A. 2017. Free-range and organic farming: eggshell contamination by mesophilic bacteria and unusual pathogens. Journal of Applied Poultry Research. 26(4):509-517.
35. Protais J, Queguiner S, Boscher E, Piquet JC, Nagard B, Salvat G. 2003. Effect of housing systems on the bacterial flora of the air. British Poultry Science, 44(5):778.
36. Ray A, Roberts JR, Flavel R, Chousalkar KK. 2015. Eggshell penetration by Salmonella Typhimurium in table eggs: Examination of underlying eggshell structures by micro-computed tomography and scanning electron microscopy. Food Research International, 78: 34-40.
37. Ricke SC, Jones DR, Gast RK. 2015. Eggs and egg products. In: Y. Salfinger and M.L. Tortorello, editors. Compendium of Methods for the Microbiological Examination of Foods, 5th edition, USA, American Public Health Association; pp.633-643.
38. Sadeyen JR, Trotereau J, Protais J, Beaumont C, Sellier N, Salvat G, Velge P, Lalmanach AC. 2006. Salmonella carrier-state in hens: study of host resistance by a gene expression approach. Microbes and Infection, 8(5):1308-1314.
39. Sparks NHC, Batt CA, Tortorello ML. 2014. Microbiology of fresh eggs. In: C.A. Batt and M.L. Tortorello, editors. Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology. USA, Elsevier Academic Press; pp.610-616.
40. Srikaeo K, Hourigan JA. 2002. The use of statistical process control (SPC) to enhance the validation of critical control points (CCPs) in shell egg washing. Food Control, 13(4-5):263-273.
41. Tayeb IT, Nehme PA, Jaber LS, Barbour EK. 2007. Competitive exclusion against Salmonella Enteritidis in layer chickens by yoghurt microbiota: impact on egg production, protection and yolk‐antibody and cholesterol levels. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 102(5):1330-1336.
42. TGK. 2014. Türk Gıda Kodeksi Yumurta Tebliği, Tebliğ No: 2014/55. Resmi Gazete, Tarih: 20.12.2014, Sayı: 29211.
43. Thormar H, Hilmarsson H, Bergsson G. 2006. Stable concentrated emulsions of the 1-monoglyceride of capric acid, monocaprin) with microbicidal activities against the food-borne bacteria Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella spp, and Escherichia coli. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 72(1):522-526.
44. Todd EC, 1996. Risk assessment of use of cracked eggs in Canada. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 30(1-2):125-143.
45. USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). 2000. Egg-grading manual. Agricultural handbook number 75. USDA Agricultural Marketing Service, Washington, DC.
46. USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). 2013. Regulations governing the voluntary grading of shell eggs, No: 7 CFR Part 56.
47. Wall H, Tauson R, Sørgjerd S. 2008. Bacterial contamination of eggshells in furnished and conventional cages. Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 17(1):11-16.
48. Whiley A, Fallowfield H, Ross K, McEvoy V, Whiley H. 2016. Higher storage temperature causes greater Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium internal penetration of artificially contaminated, commercially available, washed free range eggs. Journal of Food Protection, 79(7):1247-1251.
49. Yazgan N, Eralp E, Konyalı C, Kamanlı S, Savaş T. 2020. Kırmızı Kanatlı Akarı (Dermanyssus gallinae) enfestasyonunun ve depolamanın yumurta kalitesine etkileri. Hayvansal Üretim, 61(1):33-40.