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Bilim İnsanlarının Bilime Yönelik Sorumlulukları: Bir Etik Temellendirme Önerisi

Yıl 2015, Sayı: 3, 219 - 235, 01.12.2015

Öz

Bilimsel araştırma etiği üzerine 1990’ların ortalarından itibaren geliştirilen politika metinlerinde ve formel davranış kodlarında, bilim insanlarının bilime ve bilim topluluğuna yönelik sorumlulukları tanımlanırken çoğu zaman “toplumun bilime güveninin temini” gibi araçsalcı bir gerekçelendirmeyle yetinilmiştir. Bu makale bu tür sorumluluklar için Kant’ın ahlak felsefesine ve Popper’ın eleştirel usçu epistemolojisine referansla etik bir temellendirmenin olanaklılığını ve önemini ortaya koymayı amaçlamaktadır. Bilimin epistemik hedefi olan hakikatin aynı zamanda ahlaki bir ödev – saygı – konusu olarak postüle edilmesi ve bilim insanlarının hakikat arayışındaki öznel hedefleri ile o hedefler için başvurdukları araçlar ve yordamlar için “insanın mutlak içsel değeri”nin insan onurunun en yüksek sınırlayıcı koşul olarak benimsenmesi, uluslararası kabul görmüş bilim ahlakı kodlarındaki normların – etik çoğulculuğa başvurmadan – tutarlı biçimde türetilmesine imkân vermektedir. İnsanın, Kantçı koşulsuz buyruğa göre her eyleyişin nesnel ilkesi olması gereken ussal doğasının ve ahlaki özerkliğinin tanınması ve mutlak içsel değerine saygı aynı zamanda bilimin – ideolojik vb önkabullerin etkisiyle – epistemik hedefinden sapmamasının da güvencesini sunmakta, ahlak bu anlamda da anlığın bilişlerinin önünü açmaktadır. Tersine, araştırma problemi kurmaktan hipotez oluşturmaya ve bulguları anlamlandırmaya kadar herhangi bir araştırma evresinde insanın mutlak içsel değeriyle bağdaşmayan önkabullere yer verilmesi, bir araştırma programının epistemik kusurluluğunun ve kaçınılmaz başarısızlığının öngöstergesi olarak alınabilir. İnsanın değerini görelileştirmenin bir araştırma programını başından epistemik kusurlulukla malul edip başarısızlığa mahkûm etmesine örnek olarak yazıda, genetik belirlenimciliğin bilim alanında 19. yüzyılın kabaca son çeyreğinden günümüze kadar süren nüfuzunun sonuçları irdelenmektedir

Kaynakça

  • ALLEA (All European Academies). (2010). A European code of conduct for research integrity. Retrieved from http://www. allea.org/Content/ALLEA/Scientific%20Integrity/A%20 E u ro p e a n % 2 0 C o d e % 2 0 o f % 2 0 C o n d u c t % 2 0 fo r % 2 0 Research%20Integrity_final.10.10.pdf
  • Aközer, M., & Aközer, E. (2015). Bilim ahlakı normlarının etik temellendirilmesi: Bilim insanlarının dışsal sorumlulukları. Yükseköğretim ve Bilim Dergisi/Journal of Higher Education and Science, 5(2), 109-124. doi: 10.5961/jhes.2015.114
  • Agazzi, E. (2014). Scientific objectivity and its contexts. Dordrecht: Springer.
  • ESF (European Science Foundation), & ALLEA (All European Academies). (2011). The European code of conduct for research integrity. Ireg, Strasbourg: ESF & ALLEA. Retrieved from http:// www.esf.org/fileadmin/Public_documents/Publications/ Code_Conduct_ResearchIntegrity.pdf
  • ESF (European Science Foundation) & ORI (US Office of Research Integrity). (2007). Research integrity: Global responsibility to foster common standards. Retrieved from http://www.esf.org/ fileadmin/Public_documents/Publications/SPB%2030%20 Research%20Integrity.pdf
  • Evers, K. (2001). Standards for ethics and responsibility in science: An analysis and evaluation of their content, background and function. The International Council for Science, The Standing Committee on Responsibility and Ethics in Science (SCRES).
  • Falk, R. (2000). The gene - A concept in tension. In P. J. Beurton, R. Falk, & H-G. Rheinberger (Eds.), Concept of the gene in development and evolution: Historical and epistemological perspectives (pp. 317–347). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Friedman, M. (2004). Integrating history of philosophy with history of science after Kant. In by J. B. Schneewind (Ed.), Teaching new histories of philosophy: Proceedings of a Conference, University Center for Human Values, Princeton University, April 4-6, 2003 (pp.205–224). University Center for Human Values, Princeton University
  • Friedman, M. (2006). Metaphysical foundations of natural science. In G. Bird (Ed.), A Companion to Kant (pp. 236–248). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
  • Fox Keller, E. (2010). The mirage of a space between nature and nurture. Durham, London: Duke University Press.
  • Galton, F. (1865). The hereditary talent and character. Macmillan’s Magazine, 12, 157-66; 318-327.
  • Galton, F. (1875). The history of twins, as a criterion of the relative powers of nature and nurture. Fraser’s Magazine, 12, 566-576.
  • Galton, F. (1884). Free-will-observations and inferences. Mind, 9, 406-413.
  • Galton, F. (1892 [1869]). Hereditary genius: An inquiry into its laws and consequences (2nd ed. with an additional preface). London: MacMillan and Co.
  • Galton, F. (1907 [1883]). Inquiries into human faculty and its development (2nd ed.). Dent & Dutton (Everyman). (İlk basım: 1883, Macmillan)
  • Galton, F. (1909 [1907]). Probability, the foundation of ethics. In Essays in eugenics (pp. 73-99). London: The Eugenics Education Society.
  • Gattei, S. (2002). The ethical nature of Karl Popper’s solution to the problem of rationality. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 32(2), 240-266. doi: 10.1177/004931032002006
  • Gayon, J. (2004). La génétique est-elle encore une discipline? Erudit, 20(2), 248-253.
  • Gayon, J. (2007). The concept of the gene in contemporary biology: Continuity or dissolution? In A. Fagot-Largeault, S. Rahman, J. M. Torres (Eds.), The influence of genetics on contemporary thinking (pp. 81–96). Dordrecht: Springer.
  • Goodwin, B. C. (2001[1994]). How the leopard changed its spots: The evolution of complexity. Princeton: Princeton University Press. (İlk basım: 1994, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons)
  • Kant, I. (1997 [1775-1794]). Lectures on ethics. P. H. Heath & J. B. Schneewind (Eds.). (P. Heath, Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Kevles, D. J. (1985). In the name of eugenics: Genetics and the uses of human heredity. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Kirkpatrick, R. M., McGue, M., Iacono, W. G., Miller, M. B., Basu, S., & Pankratz, N. (2014). Low-frequency copy-number variants and general cognitive ability: No evidence of association. Intelligence, 42, 98–106. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.11.005
  • Kühl, S. (1994). The Nazi connection: Eugenics, American racism, and German national socialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Lander, E. S. et al., International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium. (2001). Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome. Nature, 409, 860–921. doi:10.1038/35057062
  • Latham, J. & Wilson, A. (2010). The great DNA data deficit: Are genes for disease a mirage? The Bioscience Research Project. Retrieved from http:// independentsciencenews.org/health/ the-great-dna-data-deficit/.
  • Lemke, T. (2005). From eugenics to the government of genetic risks. In R. Bunton & A. Petersen (Eds.). Genetic governance: Health, risk and ethics in the biotech era (pp. 89–99). Oxon: Routledge. 2005.
  • Lewontin, R. C. (1976). The fallacy of biological determinism. The Sciences, 16(2), 6–10. doi: 10.1002/j.2326-1951.1976. tb01213.x
  • Lewontin, R. C. (1991). Biology as ideology: The doctrine of DNA. New York: Harper Collins.
  • Lewontin, R. C. (2006 [1974]). The analysis of variance and the analysis of causes. International Journal of Epidemiology, 35(3), 520–525. [İlk basım: 1974, The American Journal of Human Genetics, 26, 400-411] doi: 10.1093/ije/dyl062
  • Lock, S. (1988). Fraud in medicine. British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Edition), 296(6619), 376-377.
  • Manolio, T. A. et al. (2009). Finding the missing heritability of complex diseases. Nature, 461, 747-753. doi: 10.1038/ nature08494
  • Medawar (1977). Letter from Peter Medawar to Francis Crick. Francis Crick Papers, Correspondence: Medawar, Peter (1976- 1980). Wellcome Library, Reference PPCRI/D/2/25.
  • Medawar, P. (1996 [1977]). Unnatural science. In The strange case of the spotted mice and other classic essays on science (pp. 144–160). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Muller, H. J. et al. (1939). Social biology and population improvement. Nature, 144 (3646), 521–522. doi:10.1038/144521a0 [İlk basım: Gruenberg, H. (1939). Men and mice at Edinburgh: Reports from the Genetics Congress. Journal of Heredity, 30(9), 371-374.
  • Muller, H. J. (1963). Genetic progress by voluntarily conducted germinal choice. In G. Wolstenholm (Ed.), Man and his future: A CIBA Foundation volume (pp. 247-262). Boston, Toronto: Little, Brown and Company.
  • NAS (National Academy of Sciences. Committee on the Conduct of Science). (1995). On being a scientist: Responsible conduct in research (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Retrieved from http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_ id=4917
  • Resnik, D. (1994). Philosophical foundations of scientific ethics. In M. Thomsen (Ed.), Ethical issues in physics. Ypsilanti, MI: Eastern Michigan University.
  • Resnik, D. B. (1998). The ethics of science: An introduction. London: Routledge
  • Resnik, D. B. (2008a). Fraud, fabrication, and falsification. In The Oxford textbook of clinical research ethics (pp. 787-794). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Resnik, D. B. (2008b). Ethics of science. In S. Psillos & M. Curd (Eds.), Routledge companion to philosophy of science (pp. 149–158): New York: Routledge.
  • Resnik, D. B. (2012). Ethical virtues in scientific research. Accountability in Research: Policies and Quality Assurance, 19(6): 329–343. doi: 10.1080/08989621.2012.728908
  • Roll-Hansen, N. (2010). Eugenics and the science of genetics. In A. Bashford & P. Levine (Eds.), Oxford handbook of the history of eugenics (pp. 80–97). Oxford University Press
  • Rose, N. (2001). The Politics of life itself. Theory Culture & Society, 18(6), 1–30. doi: 10.1177/02632760122052020
  • Rose, S. (1996). The rise of neurogenetic determinism. Soundings, 2, 53–69.
  • Rose, S. (1998). Lifelines: Biology beyond determinism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Rose, H. & Rose, S. (2013 [2012]). Genes, cells and brains: The Promethean promises of the new biology. London, New York: Verso.
  • Rose, S., Lewontin, R. C., & Kamin, L. (1990 [1984]). Not in our genes. London: Penguin Books. (İlk basım: 1984, Pantheon Books)
  • Ruse, M. (1994). Knowledge in human genetics: Some epistemological questions. In R. F. Weir, S. C. Lawrence & E. Fales (Eds.), Genes and human self-knowledge: Historical and philosophical reflections on modern genetics (pp. 34–45). Iowa City: University of Iowa Press.
  • Rutter, M. L. (1997). Nature–nurture integration: The example of antisocial behavior. American Psychologist, 52(4), 390–398. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003- 066X.52.4.390
  • Sceski, J. H. (2007). Popper, objectivity and the growth of knowledge. New York: Continuum.
  • Segal, N. L. (2012). Born together—Reared apart: The landmark Minnesota twin study. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012
  • Semple, C. A. M. (2001). Bases and spaces: Resources on the web for accessing the draft human genome - II - After publication of the draft. Genome Biology, 2(6), reviews 2001.1–2001.6. doi:10.1186/gb-2000-1-4-reviews2001
  • Sensen, O. (2014). Universalizing as a moral demand. Estudos Kantianos, Marília, 2(1), 169-184.
  • Shamoo, A. E., & Resnik. D. B. (2003). Responsible conduct of research. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Shearmur, J. (2002). The political thought of Karl Popper. London and New York: Routledge.
  • Steneck, N. H. (2007). ORI Introduction to the responsible conduct of research (revised ed.). Department of Health and Human Services, USA.
  • Renić, D. (2010). The debate on epistemic and ethical normativity. Disputatio philosophica, 12(1), 93-119.
  • Watson, J. D. (2000). The road ahead: A panel discussion. In G. Stock & J. Campbell (Eds.), Engineering the human germline: An exploration of the science and ethics of altering the genes we pass to our children (pp. 73-95). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Watson, J. D., & Berry, A. (2003). DNA: The secret of life. New York: A. Knopf.
  • WCRI (World Conferences on Research Integrity). (2010). Singapore statement on research integrity. Retrieved from http://www.ias.ac.in/jbiosci/singapore_statement.pdf
  • WCRI (World Conferences on Research Integrity). (2013). Montreal statement on research integrity in cross-boundary research collaborations. Retrieved from http://www.researchintegrity. org/Statements/Montreal%20Statement%20English.pdf
  • Wolstenholm, G. (1963). Man and his future: A CIBA Foundation volume. Boston, Toronto: Little, Brown and Company.
  • Wahlsten, D. (1990). Insensitivity of the analysis of variance to heredity-environment interaction. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 13(1), 109-120. Retrieved from http://dx.doi. org/10.1017/S0140525X00077797

Scientists’ Responsibilities Towards Science: A Proposal for an Ethical Justification

Yıl 2015, Sayı: 3, 219 - 235, 01.12.2015

Öz

In policy statements on ethics of scientific research and in codes of conduct developed since the mid–1990s it has often been deemed sufficient to provide an instrumentalist justification of scientists’ responsibilities towards science and the scientific community, addressing essentially the need “to build trust between science and society.” This paper aims to demonstrate the feasibility and importance of an ethical justification of such responsibilities with reference to Kant’s moral philosophy and Popper’s critical rationalist epistemology that has its roots in the former. It argues that it is possible to derive internationally recognized standards for research integrity in a consistent manner without recourse to ethical pluralism by postulating respect for truth – science’s epistemic goal – as a moral duty, and by adopting the “absolute inner worth” dignity of each and every human being as the supreme limiting condition for scientists’ subjective goals in their search for truth, and for the means and methods employed for achieving these goals. Recognition of human being’s rational nature and moral autonomy and respect for her absolute inner worth, which, in accordance with the Kantian categorical imperative, ought to be the objective principle of all action, also provides an insurance against temptations of ideological prejudgements, by fixing scientific inquiry on the route to its epistemic goal, and thus advances cognitions of the understanding. Conversely, incorporating presuppositions irreconcilable with this absolute worth at any stage of research, from hypothesis formation to the interpretation of findings, may be considered as an advance indication of a research program’s epistemic defectiveness and its inevitable failure. As an exemplary incident of fateful programmatic failure caused by relativizing human worth in a research initiative, the paper traces the consequences of the influence that genetic determinism has exerted on science from roughly the last quarter of the 19th century to the present

Kaynakça

  • ALLEA (All European Academies). (2010). A European code of conduct for research integrity. Retrieved from http://www. allea.org/Content/ALLEA/Scientific%20Integrity/A%20 E u ro p e a n % 2 0 C o d e % 2 0 o f % 2 0 C o n d u c t % 2 0 fo r % 2 0 Research%20Integrity_final.10.10.pdf
  • Aközer, M., & Aközer, E. (2015). Bilim ahlakı normlarının etik temellendirilmesi: Bilim insanlarının dışsal sorumlulukları. Yükseköğretim ve Bilim Dergisi/Journal of Higher Education and Science, 5(2), 109-124. doi: 10.5961/jhes.2015.114
  • Agazzi, E. (2014). Scientific objectivity and its contexts. Dordrecht: Springer.
  • ESF (European Science Foundation), & ALLEA (All European Academies). (2011). The European code of conduct for research integrity. Ireg, Strasbourg: ESF & ALLEA. Retrieved from http:// www.esf.org/fileadmin/Public_documents/Publications/ Code_Conduct_ResearchIntegrity.pdf
  • ESF (European Science Foundation) & ORI (US Office of Research Integrity). (2007). Research integrity: Global responsibility to foster common standards. Retrieved from http://www.esf.org/ fileadmin/Public_documents/Publications/SPB%2030%20 Research%20Integrity.pdf
  • Evers, K. (2001). Standards for ethics and responsibility in science: An analysis and evaluation of their content, background and function. The International Council for Science, The Standing Committee on Responsibility and Ethics in Science (SCRES).
  • Falk, R. (2000). The gene - A concept in tension. In P. J. Beurton, R. Falk, & H-G. Rheinberger (Eds.), Concept of the gene in development and evolution: Historical and epistemological perspectives (pp. 317–347). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Friedman, M. (2004). Integrating history of philosophy with history of science after Kant. In by J. B. Schneewind (Ed.), Teaching new histories of philosophy: Proceedings of a Conference, University Center for Human Values, Princeton University, April 4-6, 2003 (pp.205–224). University Center for Human Values, Princeton University
  • Friedman, M. (2006). Metaphysical foundations of natural science. In G. Bird (Ed.), A Companion to Kant (pp. 236–248). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
  • Fox Keller, E. (2010). The mirage of a space between nature and nurture. Durham, London: Duke University Press.
  • Galton, F. (1865). The hereditary talent and character. Macmillan’s Magazine, 12, 157-66; 318-327.
  • Galton, F. (1875). The history of twins, as a criterion of the relative powers of nature and nurture. Fraser’s Magazine, 12, 566-576.
  • Galton, F. (1884). Free-will-observations and inferences. Mind, 9, 406-413.
  • Galton, F. (1892 [1869]). Hereditary genius: An inquiry into its laws and consequences (2nd ed. with an additional preface). London: MacMillan and Co.
  • Galton, F. (1907 [1883]). Inquiries into human faculty and its development (2nd ed.). Dent & Dutton (Everyman). (İlk basım: 1883, Macmillan)
  • Galton, F. (1909 [1907]). Probability, the foundation of ethics. In Essays in eugenics (pp. 73-99). London: The Eugenics Education Society.
  • Gattei, S. (2002). The ethical nature of Karl Popper’s solution to the problem of rationality. Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 32(2), 240-266. doi: 10.1177/004931032002006
  • Gayon, J. (2004). La génétique est-elle encore une discipline? Erudit, 20(2), 248-253.
  • Gayon, J. (2007). The concept of the gene in contemporary biology: Continuity or dissolution? In A. Fagot-Largeault, S. Rahman, J. M. Torres (Eds.), The influence of genetics on contemporary thinking (pp. 81–96). Dordrecht: Springer.
  • Goodwin, B. C. (2001[1994]). How the leopard changed its spots: The evolution of complexity. Princeton: Princeton University Press. (İlk basım: 1994, New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons)
  • Kant, I. (1997 [1775-1794]). Lectures on ethics. P. H. Heath & J. B. Schneewind (Eds.). (P. Heath, Trans.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Kevles, D. J. (1985). In the name of eugenics: Genetics and the uses of human heredity. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Kirkpatrick, R. M., McGue, M., Iacono, W. G., Miller, M. B., Basu, S., & Pankratz, N. (2014). Low-frequency copy-number variants and general cognitive ability: No evidence of association. Intelligence, 42, 98–106. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.11.005
  • Kühl, S. (1994). The Nazi connection: Eugenics, American racism, and German national socialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Lander, E. S. et al., International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium. (2001). Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome. Nature, 409, 860–921. doi:10.1038/35057062
  • Latham, J. & Wilson, A. (2010). The great DNA data deficit: Are genes for disease a mirage? The Bioscience Research Project. Retrieved from http:// independentsciencenews.org/health/ the-great-dna-data-deficit/.
  • Lemke, T. (2005). From eugenics to the government of genetic risks. In R. Bunton & A. Petersen (Eds.). Genetic governance: Health, risk and ethics in the biotech era (pp. 89–99). Oxon: Routledge. 2005.
  • Lewontin, R. C. (1976). The fallacy of biological determinism. The Sciences, 16(2), 6–10. doi: 10.1002/j.2326-1951.1976. tb01213.x
  • Lewontin, R. C. (1991). Biology as ideology: The doctrine of DNA. New York: Harper Collins.
  • Lewontin, R. C. (2006 [1974]). The analysis of variance and the analysis of causes. International Journal of Epidemiology, 35(3), 520–525. [İlk basım: 1974, The American Journal of Human Genetics, 26, 400-411] doi: 10.1093/ije/dyl062
  • Lock, S. (1988). Fraud in medicine. British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Edition), 296(6619), 376-377.
  • Manolio, T. A. et al. (2009). Finding the missing heritability of complex diseases. Nature, 461, 747-753. doi: 10.1038/ nature08494
  • Medawar (1977). Letter from Peter Medawar to Francis Crick. Francis Crick Papers, Correspondence: Medawar, Peter (1976- 1980). Wellcome Library, Reference PPCRI/D/2/25.
  • Medawar, P. (1996 [1977]). Unnatural science. In The strange case of the spotted mice and other classic essays on science (pp. 144–160). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Muller, H. J. et al. (1939). Social biology and population improvement. Nature, 144 (3646), 521–522. doi:10.1038/144521a0 [İlk basım: Gruenberg, H. (1939). Men and mice at Edinburgh: Reports from the Genetics Congress. Journal of Heredity, 30(9), 371-374.
  • Muller, H. J. (1963). Genetic progress by voluntarily conducted germinal choice. In G. Wolstenholm (Ed.), Man and his future: A CIBA Foundation volume (pp. 247-262). Boston, Toronto: Little, Brown and Company.
  • NAS (National Academy of Sciences. Committee on the Conduct of Science). (1995). On being a scientist: Responsible conduct in research (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Retrieved from http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_ id=4917
  • Resnik, D. (1994). Philosophical foundations of scientific ethics. In M. Thomsen (Ed.), Ethical issues in physics. Ypsilanti, MI: Eastern Michigan University.
  • Resnik, D. B. (1998). The ethics of science: An introduction. London: Routledge
  • Resnik, D. B. (2008a). Fraud, fabrication, and falsification. In The Oxford textbook of clinical research ethics (pp. 787-794). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Resnik, D. B. (2008b). Ethics of science. In S. Psillos & M. Curd (Eds.), Routledge companion to philosophy of science (pp. 149–158): New York: Routledge.
  • Resnik, D. B. (2012). Ethical virtues in scientific research. Accountability in Research: Policies and Quality Assurance, 19(6): 329–343. doi: 10.1080/08989621.2012.728908
  • Roll-Hansen, N. (2010). Eugenics and the science of genetics. In A. Bashford & P. Levine (Eds.), Oxford handbook of the history of eugenics (pp. 80–97). Oxford University Press
  • Rose, N. (2001). The Politics of life itself. Theory Culture & Society, 18(6), 1–30. doi: 10.1177/02632760122052020
  • Rose, S. (1996). The rise of neurogenetic determinism. Soundings, 2, 53–69.
  • Rose, S. (1998). Lifelines: Biology beyond determinism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Rose, H. & Rose, S. (2013 [2012]). Genes, cells and brains: The Promethean promises of the new biology. London, New York: Verso.
  • Rose, S., Lewontin, R. C., & Kamin, L. (1990 [1984]). Not in our genes. London: Penguin Books. (İlk basım: 1984, Pantheon Books)
  • Ruse, M. (1994). Knowledge in human genetics: Some epistemological questions. In R. F. Weir, S. C. Lawrence & E. Fales (Eds.), Genes and human self-knowledge: Historical and philosophical reflections on modern genetics (pp. 34–45). Iowa City: University of Iowa Press.
  • Rutter, M. L. (1997). Nature–nurture integration: The example of antisocial behavior. American Psychologist, 52(4), 390–398. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003- 066X.52.4.390
  • Sceski, J. H. (2007). Popper, objectivity and the growth of knowledge. New York: Continuum.
  • Segal, N. L. (2012). Born together—Reared apart: The landmark Minnesota twin study. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012
  • Semple, C. A. M. (2001). Bases and spaces: Resources on the web for accessing the draft human genome - II - After publication of the draft. Genome Biology, 2(6), reviews 2001.1–2001.6. doi:10.1186/gb-2000-1-4-reviews2001
  • Sensen, O. (2014). Universalizing as a moral demand. Estudos Kantianos, Marília, 2(1), 169-184.
  • Shamoo, A. E., & Resnik. D. B. (2003). Responsible conduct of research. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Shearmur, J. (2002). The political thought of Karl Popper. London and New York: Routledge.
  • Steneck, N. H. (2007). ORI Introduction to the responsible conduct of research (revised ed.). Department of Health and Human Services, USA.
  • Renić, D. (2010). The debate on epistemic and ethical normativity. Disputatio philosophica, 12(1), 93-119.
  • Watson, J. D. (2000). The road ahead: A panel discussion. In G. Stock & J. Campbell (Eds.), Engineering the human germline: An exploration of the science and ethics of altering the genes we pass to our children (pp. 73-95). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Watson, J. D., & Berry, A. (2003). DNA: The secret of life. New York: A. Knopf.
  • WCRI (World Conferences on Research Integrity). (2010). Singapore statement on research integrity. Retrieved from http://www.ias.ac.in/jbiosci/singapore_statement.pdf
  • WCRI (World Conferences on Research Integrity). (2013). Montreal statement on research integrity in cross-boundary research collaborations. Retrieved from http://www.researchintegrity. org/Statements/Montreal%20Statement%20English.pdf
  • Wolstenholm, G. (1963). Man and his future: A CIBA Foundation volume. Boston, Toronto: Little, Brown and Company.
  • Wahlsten, D. (1990). Insensitivity of the analysis of variance to heredity-environment interaction. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 13(1), 109-120. Retrieved from http://dx.doi. org/10.1017/S0140525X00077797
Toplam 64 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Bölüm Research Article
Yazarlar

Mehmet Aközer Bu kişi benim

Emel Aközer Bu kişi benim

Yayımlanma Tarihi 1 Aralık 2015
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2015 Sayı: 3

Kaynak Göster

APA Aközer, M., & Aközer, E. (2015). Bilim İnsanlarının Bilime Yönelik Sorumlulukları: Bir Etik Temellendirme Önerisi. Yükseköğretim Ve Bilim Dergisi(3), 219-235.
AMA Aközer M, Aközer E. Bilim İnsanlarının Bilime Yönelik Sorumlulukları: Bir Etik Temellendirme Önerisi. J Higher Edu Sci. Aralık 2015;(3):219-235.
Chicago Aközer, Mehmet, ve Emel Aközer. “Bilim İnsanlarının Bilime Yönelik Sorumlulukları: Bir Etik Temellendirme Önerisi”. Yükseköğretim Ve Bilim Dergisi, sy. 3 (Aralık 2015): 219-35.
EndNote Aközer M, Aközer E (01 Aralık 2015) Bilim İnsanlarının Bilime Yönelik Sorumlulukları: Bir Etik Temellendirme Önerisi. Yükseköğretim ve Bilim Dergisi 3 219–235.
IEEE M. Aközer ve E. Aközer, “Bilim İnsanlarının Bilime Yönelik Sorumlulukları: Bir Etik Temellendirme Önerisi”, J Higher Edu Sci, sy. 3, ss. 219–235, Aralık 2015.
ISNAD Aközer, Mehmet - Aközer, Emel. “Bilim İnsanlarının Bilime Yönelik Sorumlulukları: Bir Etik Temellendirme Önerisi”. Yükseköğretim ve Bilim Dergisi 3 (Aralık 2015), 219-235.
JAMA Aközer M, Aközer E. Bilim İnsanlarının Bilime Yönelik Sorumlulukları: Bir Etik Temellendirme Önerisi. J Higher Edu Sci. 2015;:219–235.
MLA Aközer, Mehmet ve Emel Aközer. “Bilim İnsanlarının Bilime Yönelik Sorumlulukları: Bir Etik Temellendirme Önerisi”. Yükseköğretim Ve Bilim Dergisi, sy. 3, 2015, ss. 219-35.
Vancouver Aközer M, Aközer E. Bilim İnsanlarının Bilime Yönelik Sorumlulukları: Bir Etik Temellendirme Önerisi. J Higher Edu Sci. 2015(3):219-35.