Eski Mezopotamya Terminolojisinde Düşman

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 16 Sayı: 4, 651 - 668, 10.11.2024

Aysun Payam , Ümran Ozan Karahan

https://doi.org/10.9737/historystudies.1534920

Öz

Bazı terimlerin insanlığın gözünde zamanı aşan bir gücü vardır. Geçen yıllar bu terimlerin anlam gücünü eksiltmez. Aksine bu terimlerin anlam gücü o kadar keskinleşir ve derinleşir ki, günümüz insanlarını geçmişte yaşamış olan insanlarla aynı duyguda birleştirmeyi başarır. Düşman sözcüğü de hiç şüphesiz böyle bir güce sahiptir. Bu çalışmada Eski Mezopotamya uygarlıklarının düşman kavramına yaklaşımları, düşmanı tanımlamak için kullandıkları Sumerce ve Akadca kelimeler yoluyla incelenmiştir. Orijinal metinlere dayanarak hazırlanmış sözlük ve dilbilgisi eserleri ile dijital kaynakların taranmasıyla ulaşılan terimler, uzmanlar tarafından hazırlanmış ikincil çalışmalarla birlikte değerlendirilmiştir. Böylece terimlerin sahip oldukları anlamlar üzerinden çıkarımlar yapılarak düşman ve düşmanlığın Eski Mezopotamya’daki kökeni ve doğası üzerine yorumlar yapılmıştır. Sonuç olarak gücü elinde bulunduranlar tarafından oluşturulan düşman anlatımlarının insanların bilinçaltını gösteren kutuplaştırıcı ve karşılaştırmalı bir dile hizmet ettiği; kullanılan düşman terimlerinin ise iki taraf arasında negatif bir ilişki kurulmasını sağladığı anlaşılmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Düşman, Düşmanlık, Eskiçağ Tarihi, Eski Mezopotamya, Ötekileştirme

Etik Beyan

Bu çalışma Uşak Üniversitesi Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsünde hazırlanan “Eskiçağ Mezopotamya Metinlerinde Düşman Algısı: (M.Ö. 3200-M.Ö.539)” başlıklı doktora tezi esas alınarak hazırlanmıştır.

Enemy in Ancient Mesopotamian Terminology

Öz

Some terms possess a timeless power in the eyes of humanity. The passage of years does not diminish their significance. On the contrary, the meaning of these phrases becomes so sharpened and deepened that they manage to unite people of today in the same feeling as people who lived in the past. The word 'enemy' undoubtedly has such power. In this study, the approach of the ancient Mesopotamian civilizations to the concept of enemy is examined through the Sumerian and Akkadian phrases they used to define the enemy. The phrases, which were obtained by scanning dictionary and grammar works and digital resources based on the original texts, were evaluated together with secondary studies prepared by experts. Thus, by making inferences based on the meanings of the terms, comments were made on the origin and nature of enemies and enmity in Ancient Mesopotamia. As a result, it was understood that the enemy narratives created by those in power serve a polarizing and comparative language that shows people's subconscious, while the enemy terms used enable the establishment of a negative relationship between the two sides.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Ancient History, Ancient Mesopotamya, Enemy, Enmity, Marginalization

Etik Beyan

This study is based on the doctoral thesis (Uşak University, Institute of Graduate Education) titled "The Perception of Enemy in the Ancient Mesopotamian Inscription (BC 3200-539)".

Kaynakça

• A. Arşiv Kaynakları
• CAD: The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, Gelb, I. J. vd. (eds.), Chicago: Oriental Institute, 1956-2011.
• DCCLT: Digital Corpus of Cuneiform Lexical Texts, Niek Veldhuis, 2003-… (http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/dcclt/pager)
• ePSD: The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary,Leichty, Erle ve A. W. Sjöberg (eds.),2006-… (http://psd.museum.upenn.edu).
• ETCSL: The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature(https://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk).
• RIME 1: Presargonic Period (2700-2350BC): The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia (Early Periods 1) RIME 1, DouglasFrayne, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998.
• SEAL: Sources of Early Akkadian Literture, Streck, P. Michael ve Nathan Wasserman, 2019-… (https://seal.huji.ac.il)
• B. Modern Kaynaklar
• Beckman, Gery, “Foreigners in the Ancient Near East”, Journal of American Oriental Society, 133, no. 2 (2013): 203-215. doi:10.7817/jameroriesoci.133.2.0203.
• Bertman, Stephen. Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. New York: OUP, 2005.
• Black, Jeremy, A. George and N. Postgate. A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2000.
• Canetti, Elias. Kitle ve İktidar. Çeviren Gülşat Aygen, İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları,2017.
• Caramelo, Francisco. “Thinking about War in Ancient Mesopotamia: A Prophetic Discourse of Legitimacy.” Cadmo18 (2008): 41-52, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.14195/0871-9527_18_3
• Cooper, Jerrold S. Reconstructing History from Ancient Inscriptions: The Lagash – Umma Border Conflict. Malibu: Undena Publications, 1983.
• Fales, Frederick M. “The Enemy in Assyrian Royal Inscription: The Moral Judgement.” Mesopotamien und Seine Nachbarn 4, no.1 (1982): 425-434.
• Frahm, Eckart. “Humor in Assyrischen Königsinschriften”, Intellecual Life of the Ancient Near East-Paper-Presented at the 43. RAI, Prague, July 1-5, 1996 (RAI 43), Editör. J. Prosecky, 147-162.Prag: Oriental Institute, 1998.
• Girard, Rene. Günah Keçisi. Çeviren Işık Ergüden, İstanbul: Alfa Yayıncılık,2018.
• Gökçek, L. Gürkan. Asurlular. Ankara: Bilgin Kültür Sanat Yayınları,2015.
• Haas, Volkert. “Die Dämonisierung des Fremden und des Feindes im Alten Orient”. Roczniky orientalistyczny 41, no. 2 (1980): 37–44.
• Karlsson, Mattias. Relations of Power in Early Neo-Assyrian State Ideology. Boston and Berlin: De Gruyter, 2016.
• Karlsson, Mattias. Alterity in Ancient Assyrian Propaganda.Helsinki/Winona Lake: Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, 2017.
• Keen, Sam. Faces of the Enemy, Reflections of the Hostile Imagination. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 2004.
• Kutsal Kitap. Eski ve Yeni Anlaşma (Tevrat, Zebur, İncil). İstanbul: Kitabı Mukaddes Şirketi, 2001.
• Moses, Rafael. “Düşman Algısı: Psikolojik Bir Analiz,”Tarih OkuluVII. Çeviri B. Senem Çevik. (Mayıs-Ağustos 2010): 99-108.
• Moukarzel, Kabalan. “Some Observations about “Foreigners” in Babylonia during the VIth Century BCE.” Melammu 7, The Ancient World in an Age of Globalization,Proceedings of the Sixth Symposium of the Melammu Project, Editör M.J. Geller, 129-155. Berlin: Marx-Planck-Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften, 2014. doi: 10.34663/9783945561003-09.
• Murray, Kethleen Shoon, and Jason Meyers. “Do People Need Foreign Enemies? American Leaders’ Belief after the Soviet Demise”. Journal of Conflict Resolution43, no. 5 (1999):555-569.
• Mynarova, Jana. “Fear of Strangers? Ethnicity and Xenophobia in Amarna Letters”. Aula Orientalis 39, no. 1 (2021):115-125.
• Nadali, Davide. “Shaming the Enemy in Assyrian Palace Reliefs and Royal Inscriptions.” The Routledge Handbook of Emotions in the Ancient Near East, Editör Karen Sonik, 614-627. London and New York: Routledge, 2023.
• Nietzsche, Friedrich. Böyle Dedi Zerdüşt. Çeviri Gülperi Sert, Ankara: Doğu Batı Yayınları, 2017.
• Nowicki, Stefan. Enemies of Assyria: The Image and Role of Enemy in Assyrian Royal Inscriptions Selected Textual Sources From the Neo-Assyrian Period (AOAT 452). Münster: Ugarit Verlag, 2018.
• Nowicki, Stefan. “Enemies and Witches in the Scribal Tradition of Ancient Mesopotamia.” Marginalized Groups in Antiquity 44, (2021): 11-33.
• Oppenheimer, Louis. “The Development of Enemy Images: A Theoretical Contribution”. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology 12, no. 3(2006.): 269-292. doi:10.1207/s15327949pac1203_4.
• Parpola, Simo. Assyrian – English – Assyrian Dictionary. Helsinki: Penn University Press,2007.
• Paszke, Z. Marcin. “Let’s Pile up Some Corpses and Pour out a Libation – A Reconstruction of IIIrd Millennium BC Battlefield Burial Tumulus in Ancient Mesopotamia”. Acta Archaeologica Lodziensia 65 (2019): 27-38. doi: 10.26485/AAL/2019/65/3
• Peled, Ilan. "The Deviant Villain: The Construction of Villainy as Deviant Otherness in Mesopotamian Royal Rhetoric." Avar 1 no.1 (2022) :51-87. doi:https://doi.org/10.33182/aijls.v1i1.1529.
• Poo, Mu - Chou. Enemies of Civilization: Attitudes toward Foreigners in Ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt and China XVIII. Albany: New York Press,2005.
• Puhvel, Jaan. Hittite Etmyological Dictionary,Vol. 4 Words Begining with K. Berlin- New York: Mouton De Gruyter, 1997.
• Reed, Stephanie. “Blurring the Edges: A Reconsideration of the Treatment of Enemies in Ashurbanipal’s Reliefs.” Ancient Near Eastern Art in Context, Studies in Honor of Irene J. Winter by Her Students, Editör J. Cheng ve M. H. Feldman, 99-128. Leıden: Brill,2007.
• Riches, David. Antropolojik Açıdan Şiddet. Çeviri Dilek Hattatoğlu, İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları,1989.
• Rivaroli, Marta and Lorenzo Verderame. “To be non-Assyrian”, Ethnicity in Ancient Mesopotamia, Paper Read at the 48. RAI 1-4 July 2002, Editör W.H. van Soldt, 290-305. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten,2005.
• Sazanov, Vladimir. “Some Remarks Concerning the Development of the Theology of War in Ancient Mezopotamia.” The Religious Aspect of War in the Ancient Near East, Greece and Rome 84, (2016): 23-50. doi:10.1163/9789004324763_004.
• Schmitt, Carl. Siyasal Kavramı. Çeviri Ece Göztepe, İstanbul: Metis Yayınları, 2009.
• Silverstein, Brett. “Enemy Images: The Psychology of U.S. Attitudes and Cognitions Regarding the Soviet Union.” American Psychologist 44, no. 6 (1989): 903-913. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.44.6.903.
• Türk Dil Kurumu. Türkçe Sözlük 1. Ankara: Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları, 1998.
• Volkan, Vamık. “The Need to Have Enemies and Allies: A Developmental Approach”. Political Psychology 6, no.2 (1985): 212-247.
• Vuorinen, Marja. Enemy Images in War Propoganda. Newycastle upon Tyne: Cambridge S. Publishing,2012. Zaccagnini, Carlo. “The Enemy in The Neo-Assyrian Royal Inscriptions: The “Ethnographic” Description.” Mesopotamien und Seine Nachbarn 4, no.1 (1982): 409-424.
• Zawadski, Stefan. “Depicting Hostile Rulers in the Neo-Assyrian Royal Inscriptions.”From Source to History: Studies on Ancient Near Eastern Worlds and Beyond, Dedicated to Giovanni Battista Lanfranchi on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday on June 23, 2014, Editör S. Gaspa vd., 767–778. Münster: Ugarit, 2014.
• Zur, Ofer. “The Love of Hating: The Psychology of Enmity”. History of European Ideas13, no.4 (1991): 345-369.
• C. İnternet Kaynakları
• Beale, Jonathan. “High number of civilians hurt by explosives in 2023 .” BBC, Erişim Tarihi 08.01.2024. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-67915770.
• Cambridge English Dictionary. t.y. “Enemy”, Erişim Tarihi 15.01. 2024. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/enemy. Foxvog, A. Daniel. Elementary Sumerian Glossary. Cuneiform Digital Library Preprints 2016 (3.0.). Erişim Tarihi 16.01.2024, https://cdli.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/articles/cdlp/3.0.pdf.
• Halloran, John Alan. Sumerian Lexicon Version 2006 (3.0.). Erişim Tarihi 16.01.2024.http://sumerian.org/sumerian.pdf.