Tokyo: Solaris-Resilient, Vulnerable and Dangerous City of the Empire of Sun

Öz

Tokyo is the world’s most resilient city, according to the Safe Cities Index (SCI), the City Resilience Index (CRI) and Savills Resilient Cities Index. The city is a socio-ecological system with a physical structure where nature and humans develop together and interact. The city system is open to natural disasters headed by climate change and earthquakes and to human-made disasters. Since disasters inevitably occur, it is possible to regard Tokyo city as resilient, vulnerable and dangerous at one and the same time. As many cities around the world are subject to disasters, extensive public policies have been instrumentalised to counter the risk. Yet no other city has the level of resilience which Tokyo has. Moreover, Tokyo has been a major focus of technical and academic works on how to become a resilient city, and a city which has offered opportunities to put such works into practice.

Touching, from a holistic perspective, on the necessity for Tokyo to be a resilient city, this article seeks to identify the main, conscious approaches taken, efforts made and policies implemented by the public authorities. It also aims to open a discussion about the dangerous and vulnerable condition in which the city finds itself today, notwithstanding all the various efforts made. It is hoped that this discussion will give direction to the ideas and actions of individuals and decision-makers in other world cities, whether or not they have a vision of becoming resilient cities, and so contribute to resilient city efforts. The city is examined using the descriptive analysis method, and work on its current condition is evaluated critically. The evaluation is supported with visuals taken from active observations made on the spot in Tokyo.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Resilient City,Sustainable City,Dangerous City,Tokyo

Tokyo: Solaris - Güneş İmparatorluğu’nun Dirençli, Kırılgan ve Tehlikeli Kenti

Öz

Tokyo, Güvenli Kentler Endeksi (SCI), Dirençli Kentler Endeksi (CRI) ve Savills Dirençli Kentler Endeksi’ne göre dünyanın en dirençli kentidir. Kent, fiziki yapısı olan, doğa ve insanın birlikte geliştiği ve birbirini etkilediği sosyo-ekolojik bir sistemdir. Kentin sistemi; iklim değişikliği ve depremler başta olmak üzere doğal kaynaklı ve insan kaynaklı afetlere açıktır. Afetler kaçınılmaz olarak meydana geldiğinden Tokyo kentini; aynı anda, dirençli, kırılgan ve tehlikeli bir kent olarak tanımlamak mümkündür. Dünya üzerindeki pek çok kent afete maruz olduğundan yaygın kamu politikalarıyla riske karşı koymayı bir araç haline getirmiştir. Ancak bu kentlerin hiçbiri Tokyo kentinin dirençlilik seviyesine sahip değildir. Ayrıca Tokyo, dirençli bir kent olma yönünde teknik ve akademik çalışmaların odaklandığı veya icra imkânı bulduğu bir kenttir.

Bu makale; bütüncül bir bakış açısıyla Tokyo’nun dirençli bir kent olma zorunluluğuna değinerek, kamu idarelerinin bilinçli ve belirgin anlayışları, çabaları ve uygulamalarını tespit etmeyi ve çeşitli çabaların varlığına rağmen, bugünkü tehlikeli ve kırılgan durumunu tartışmayı amaçlamaktadır. Bu tartışmanın, dirençli kent olma öngörüsüne sahip olan veya olmayan diğer dünya kentlerinin birey ve karar vericilerinin düşün ve eylemlerine yön göstermesi ve dirençli kent çabalarına katkı sağlaması hedeflenmektedir. Betimleyici analiz yöntemiyle ele alınan kentin mevcut durumuyla ilgili çalışmalar eleştirel bir yaklaşımla değerlendirilmektedir. Değerlendirme, Tokyo kentinde yerinde aktif gözlemlere dayalı görsellerle desteklenmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Dirençli Kent,Sürdürülebilir Kent,Tokyo,Tehlikeli Kent

Kaynakça

1. Arigane, K. (2019). Tokyo Metropolitan government's initiatives, disaster pre-vention division (senior director), bureau of general affairs. Urban Resilience Forum (URF) Dirençli Kentler Forumu, Tokyo. 20-22.05.2019. Subsession 4: Non-structural Measures Against Flooding. www.soumu.metro.tokyo.jp/01soumu/kikaku/urf-tokyo/en/index.html adresinden erişilmiştir.
2. Başka Sinema (t.y) Başka sinema. www.baskasinema.com adresinden erişil-miştir.
3. Blair, G. (Ekim 12, 2019). Typoon Habigis: millions across Japan told to evac-uate homes. The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/12/typhoon-hagibis-evacuation-japan-tokyo-braces-storm-arrival adresinden erişilmiştir.
4. Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı [ÇŞB]. (2019). 2020-2023 ulusal akıllı şehirler stratejisi ve eylem planı. Ankara.
5. Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı [ÇŞB]. IPA. (2017). Çevre ve iklim eylemi sektör operasyonel planı. Ankara.
6. Colucci, A. (2014). Resilient cities: Approaches and practices, resilience injec-tions in urban agenda. Resilience Lab. 4-6.
7. Delgado-Ramos, G. Carlo ve Guibrinet, L. (2017). Assessing the ecological dimension of urban resilience and sustainability. International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development, 9(2), 151-169.
8. Deutsche Welle (DW), (12.10.2019). Japan: Tokyo braces itself for worst typhoon in 60 years https://www.dw.com/en/japan-tokyo-braces-itself-for-worst-typhoon-in-60-years/a-50805381 adresinden erişilmiştir.

9. Dirençli Kentler Endeksi (City Resilient Index [CRI] (2019). www.100resillientcities.org
10. Eren, Ş. G. ve Günay, A. S. (2015). Analysing the transfer of immovable proper-ty rights for urban resilience: An alternative land management model for the Karaburun-Çeşme-Seferihisar Peninsula. Ocean and Coastal Manage-ment, 118, 139-157 (0964-5691).
11. Feng, S., Hossain, L. ve Platon, D. (2018). Harnessing informal education for community resilience. Disaster Prevention and Management an International Journal. 27 (1), 43-59.
12. Gökçeli, R. (2019). 4. endüstriyel devrim ve mimarlık. http://rasitgokceli.blogspot.com adresinden erişilmiştir.
13. Hein, C. (2005). Resilient Tokyo. Disaster and transformation in the Japanese City. (Ed.) V. J. Lawrence and C. J. Thomas. The Resilient City içinde (s. 213-234). Oxford Univ. Press. https://www.100resilientcities.org/tokyos-amazing-disaster-prepcenter/ adreslerinden erişilmiştir.
14. ISMEP, (2014). Afete dirençli şehir planlama ve yapılaşma. İSMEP Rehber Kitap-lar. İstanbul Valiliği, AFAD, İPKB. İstanbul: Haziran.
15. Japan Climate Initiative (t.y). https://japanclimate.org/english adresinden erişilmiştir.
16. Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). (2007). Urban planning system in Japan (2nd Ed.). JR 06-009. In cooperation with Ministry of Land, Infra-structure and Transport.
17. Japan Property Central [JPC] (t.y). https://japanpropertycentral.com/realestate-faq/reclaimed-land-in japan/ adresinden erişilmiştir.
18. Japanese Government. (2018). Climate change report. synthesis report on ob-servations, projections and impact assessments of climate change. 2018 “Climate Change in Japan and Its Impacts. http:///www.env.go.jp/earth/tekiou/pamph2018 _full_Eng.pdf adresinden erişilmiştir.
19. Johnson, C. ve Blackburn, S. (2014). Advocacy for urban resilience. UNISDR’s Making Cities Resilient Campaign, Environment & Urbanization, Internation-al Institute for Environment and Development, 26 (1), 29-52.
20. Kato, M. (2019). Resilient cities need a healthy countryside https://en. japantrav-el.com/tokyo/resilient-cities-need-a-healthy-countryside/59791 adresinden erişilmiştir.
21. Kobayashi, K. (2019). River projects in Tokyo. River Division, bureau of con-struction (senior director), Tokyo Metropolitan government, Urban Resili-ence Forum (URF) Dirençli Kentler Forumu, Tokyo. 20-22.05.2019. Subsession 4: Non-structural Measures Against Flooding. www.soumu.metro.tokyo.jp/01soumu/kikaku/urf-tokyo/en/index.html adresinden erişilmiştir.
22. Koga, M. (2019). Tokyo Metropolitan Government's initiatives. disaster pre-vention planning bureau of general affairs (senior director). Urban Resili-ence Forum (URF) Dirençli Kentler Forumu, Tokyo. 20-22.05.2019. Subsession 4: Non-structural Measures Against Flooding. www.soumu.metro.tokyo.jp/01soumu/kikaku/urf-tokyo/en/index.html adresinden erişilmiştir.
23. Koike, Y. (2019). Be prepared (Governor of Tokyo). The Urban 20 (U20) Mayor’s Summit / (Kentsel 20 Belediye Başkanları Zirvesi), Tokyo. Mayoral Round Ta-ble Meeting. www.soumu.metro.tokyo.jp/01soumu/kikaku/urf-tokyo/en/index.html adresinden erişilmiştir.
24. Malpus, I. (2019). In the land of the rising sun, Climate efforts are failing be-hind. Uneven Earth http://unevenearth.org/2019/08/in-japan-climate-efforts-falling-behing adresinden erişilmiştir.
25. McKean, C. A. (2014). Tokyo’s disaster contingency plan https://www.100resillientcities. org/tokyos-disaster-contingency-plan adresinden erişilmiştir.
26. Meerow, S. (2017). Double exposure, infrastructure planning, and urban cli-mate resilience in coastal megacities: A case study of manila, Environment and Planning, 49 (11). 2649-2672.
27. Oktay, D. (2007). Sürdürülebilirlik, yaşanabilirlik ve kentsel yaşam kalitesi, Mimarlık. Dosya: Kentsel Yaşam Kalitesi.
28. Özer, Y. E. (2018). Risk azaltma yaklaşımı çerçevesinde dirençli kentler. Bursa: Ekin.
29. Sapountzaki, K. (2014). “Resilience for all” and “collective resilience” are these planning objectives consistent with one another? (Eds.) P. Gasparini, G. Manfredi and D. Asprone, Resilience and Sustainability in Relation to Natu-ral Disasters: A Challenge for Future Cities, Springer.
30. Schubert, D. (2019). Cities and plans- the past defines the future. Planning Per-spectives. 34(1), 3-23.
31. Takayanagi, H., Oneyama, H., Ishikura, T. ve Shikata, S. (2013). How stranded commuters in Tokyo returned home after the Great East Earthquake: Anal-ysis of the situation on Twitter. Journal of JSCE. 1. 470-478.
32. Tang, J. ve Heinimann, H. R. (2018). A resilience–oriented approach for quan-titatively assessing recurrent spatial-temporal congestion on urban roads, PloSOne. 13 (1). 1.
33. Tarihi Olaylar. (T.y). 2011 Japonya depremi ve tsunami, https://www.tarihiolaylar.com adresinden erişilmiştir.
34. Tayfun bir kez daha Fukuşima’daki radyoaktif atıkları denize süpürdü. (Ekim 15, 2019) Yeşil Gazete. https://yesilgazete.org/blog/2019/10/15/tayfun-bir-kez-daha-fukusimadaki-radyoaktif-atiklari-denize-supurdu/
35. Taylor, A. (2019). Scenes from the Aftermath of Typhoon Hagibis in Japan. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2019/10/scenes-aftermath-of-typhoon-hagibis /600040/ adresinden erişilmiştir.
36. The Economist Intelligence Unit, Safe Cities Index (2019). Urban security and resilience in an interconnected world (60 kent 57 gösterge. www.safecities.economist.com adresinden erişilmiştir.
37. Tokyo Bureau of Urban Development (Tokyo Kentsel İmar Bürosu) (2019). Urban resilience forum Tokyo (Dirençli Kentler Forumu), 20-22.05.2019. Sub-session 1 and 2. Structural Measures against Earthquakes and Flood Dis-asters www.soumu. metro.tokyo.jp/01soumu/kikaku/urf-tokyo/en/index.html adresinden erişilmiştir.
38. Tokyo Declaration on Enhancing Urban Resilience (URF Tokyo Declaration (Tokyo, Bangkok, Buenos Aires, Christchurch, Durban, Hanoi, Jakarta, Meksika, New Orleans, Paris, Roterdam, Santiago, Seul, Taşkent, Tiran, Ulan Batur, Wellington katılımında) (2019). Urban Resilience Forum (URF) (Dirençli Kentler Forumu), Tokyo. 20-22.05.2019. www.soumu.metro.tokyo.jp/01soumu/kikaku/urf-tokyo/en/index .html adresinden erişilmiştir.
39. Tokyo Metropolitan Government. (2018). Disaster prevention guidebook. http://www.bousai.metro.tokyo.jp/index.html adresinden erişilmiştir.
40. Tokyo Metropoliten Hükümet Resmi Afet Yönetim İnternet Sitesi (Tokyo Metropolitan Government's Disaster Management Website. (t.y). https://www.bousai.metro.tokyo.lg.jp/sub/1000255.html adresinden erişilmiştir.
41. Tokyo to Host Two International Conferences in May 2019: Urban 20 Mayors Summit and Urban Resilience Forum Tokyo. (Aralık 18, 2018). Tokyo Metro, www.metro.tokyo.jp/english/topics/2018/181218.html adresinden erişilmiştir.
42. Typhoon Hagibis: Homeless men denied shelter in middle of typhoon (Ekim 15, 2019) BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-50052615 adresinden erişilmiştir.
43. Tzatzanis-Stepanovic, E. B., Paramor, O. Herzog, O., Wang, Y. ve Aune, P. (2019). Urban EU-China innovation platform on sustainable urbanisation. Deliverable 1.3: Alignment Paper (no. 1) Task 1.2: Alignment of Bilateral Fund-ing and Cooperation Frameworks Work Package 1: Joint Policy Strategies URBAN-EU-CHINA Innovation Platform on Sustainable Urbanisation www.soumu. metro.tokyo.jp/01soumu/kikaku/urf-tokyo/en/index.html ad-resinden erişilmiştir.
44. Union Nations (2019). Birleşmiş milletler sürdürülebilir kalkınma hedefleri (UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/ ?menu=1300 adresinden erişilmiş-tir.
45. Victor, D. (Eylül 9 ,2019) Typhoon faxai batters Tokyo, killing one. The New York Times https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/09/world/asia/typhoon-faxai-tokyo.html adresinden erişilmiştir.
46. Wang, Y., Wang, N. Lin, P., Ellingwood, B., Mahmoud, H. ve Maloney, T. (1982). Deaggregation of community resilience goals to obtain minimum performance objectives for buildings under tornado hazards, Structural Safety, 70. 82-92.
47. Wikipedia (t.y) Japanese Maps. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_maps adresinden erişilmiştir.
48. Wikipedia (t.y). Metropolitan area outer underground discharge channel https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Area_Outer_Underground_Discharge_Channel adresinden erişilmiştir.
49. Wilbanks T. (2007). The research component of the community and regional resili-ence initiative (CARRI), Presentation at the Natural Hazards Center, Univer-sity of Colorado-Boulder.
50. World Bank Group (WB Group), Japan Government, Tokyo Development Le-arning Center (TDLC). (2017). Case study on Tokyo Metropolitan region, Po-licy Paper Series 3.
51. World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). (1987). Our common future. (Brundtland Report), Oxford University Press, Oxford.
52. World Population Review (2019). Tokyo population 2020 http://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/tokyo-population adre-sinden erişilmiştir.
53. Ziergovel, G., Pelling, M. ve Cartwright, A. (2017). Inserting rights and Justice ınto urban resillience. A focus on everyday risk, Environment and Urbaniza-tion, 29 (1), 123-138.