Türkiye’de CO2 Emisyonu ve Sağlık Harcamaları: Ekonomik Büyüme, Yenilenebilir Enerji Tüketimi ve Kentleşme Üzerine Ampirik Kanıtlar

Öz

Bu çalışma, Türkiye’ de sağlık harcamaları, yenilenebilir enerji tüketimi ve ekonomik büyüme ile çevre kirliliği arasındaki ilişkiyi incelemektedir. Bu kapsamda kişi başına düşen gayri safi yurtiçi hasıla, kişi başına düşen sağlık harcamaları, yenilenebilir enerji tüketimi ve kentsel nüfus artışı ile kişi başına düşen CO2 emisyonu değişkenleri kullanılarak uzun ve kısa dönemli etkileri otoregresif dağıtılmış gecikme (ARDL) yöntemi ile analiz edilmiştir. 1990-2021 dönemi için yıllık zaman serisi verileri kullanılmıştır. Analiz sonucu değişkenler arasında eş bütünleşme ilişkisinin mevcut olduğunu göstermektedir. Uzun dönemde ekonomik büyüme ile CO2 emisyonu arasında pozitif yönlü, yenilenebilir enerji tüketimi, sağlık harcamaları ve kentleşme ile CO2 emisyonu arasında ise negatif yönlü bir ilişki ortaya çıkmaktadır. Kısa dönemde sadece ekonomik büyüme ile yenilenebilir enerji tüketiminin CO2 emisyonu ile ilişkili olduğu belirlenmiştir. Bu sonuçlara göre Türkiye’ de çevre kirliliğini önlemek için çevresel sürdürülebilirliği dikkate alan ekonomik büyüme ve sağlık harcamaları politikalarının ve aynı zamanda yenilenebilir enerji tüketimini artıran politikaların teşvik edilmesi gerekmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• CO2 emisyonu
• Sağlık harcamaları
• Ekonomik büyüme
• ARDL
• Türkiye

CO2 Emissions and Health Expenditures in Türkiye: Empirical Evidence on Economic Growth, Renewable Energy Consumption, and Urbanization

Öz

This study examines the relationship between healthcare expenditures, renewable energy consumption, economic growth, and environmental pollution in Türkiye. In this context, the long- and short-term effects of per capita gross domestic product, per capita healthcare expenditures, renewable energy consumption, urban population growth, and per capita CO2 emissions were analyzed using the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) method. Annual time series data were used for the period 1990-2021. The analysis demonstrates a cointegration relationship between the variables. In the long term, a positive relationship was identified between economic growth and CO2 emissions, while a negative relationship emerges between renewable energy consumption, healthcare expenditures, urbanization, and CO2 emissions. In the short term, only economic growth and renewable energy consumption are associated with CO2 emissions. According to these results, to prevent environmental pollution in Türkiye, economic growth and healthcare spending policies that take environmental sustainability into account, as well as policies that increase renewable energy consumption, should be encouraged.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• CO2 emissions
• Health expenditures
• Economic growth
• ARDL
• Türkiye

Kaynakça

1. Acheampong, A. O., Dzator, J., & Savage, D. A. (2021). Renewable energy, CO2 emissions and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa: does institutional quality matter? Journal of Policy Modeling, 43(5), 1070-1093. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2021.03.011
2. Adams, S., & Acheampong, A. O. (2019). Reducing carbon emissions: the role of renewable energy and democracy. Journal of Cleaner Production, 240, 118245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118245
3. Adebayo, T. S., & Ullah, S. (2024). Towards a sustainable future: The role of energy efficiency, renewable energy, and urbanization in limiting CO2 emissions in Sweden. Sustainable development, 32(1), 244-259. doi: 10.1002/sd.2658
4. Akbar, M., Hussain, A., Akbar, A., & Ullah, I. (2021). The dynamic association between healthcare spending, CO2 emissions, and human development index in OECD countries: evidence from panel VAR model. Environment, development and sustainability, 23(7), 10470-10489. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-01066-5
5. Akbostancı, E., Türüt-Aşık, S., & Tunç, G. İ. (2009). The relationship between income and environment in Turkey: is there an environmental Kuznets curve?. Energy policy, 37(3), 861-867. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2008.09.088
6. Alam, M. B., & Hossain, M. S. (2024). Investigating the connections between China's economic growth, use of renewable energy, and research and development concerning CO2 emissions: An ARDL Bound Test Approach. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 201, 123220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2024.123220
7. Alimi, O. Y., Ajide, K. B., & Isola, W. A. (2020). Environmental quality and health expenditure in ECOWAS. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 22(6), 5105-5127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-019-00416-2
8. Almulhim, A. A., Inuwa, N., Chaouachi, M., & Samour, A. (2025). Testing the impact of renewable energy and institutional quality on Consumption-Based CO2 emissions: Fresh insights from MMQR approach. Sustainability, 17(2), 704. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17020704

9. Alola, A. A. (2019). Carbon emissions and the trilemma of trade policy, migration policy and health care in the US. Carbon Management, 10(2), 209-218. https://doi.org/10.1080/17583004.2019.1577180
10. Ampon-Wireko, S., Zhou, L., Xu, X., Dauda, L., Mensah, I. A., Larnyo, E., & Baah Nketia, E. (2022). The relationship between healthcare expenditure, CO2 emissions and natural resources: evidence from developing countries. Journal of Environmental Economics and Policy, 11(3), 272-286. https://doi.org/10.1080/21606544.2021.1979101
11. Apergis, N., Gupta, R., Lau, C. K. M., & Mukherjee, Z. (2018). US state-level carbon dioxide emissions: does it affect health care expenditure?. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 91, 521-530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.035
12. Apergis, N., Jebli, M. B., & Youssef, S. B. (2018). Does renewable energy consumption and health expenditures decrease carbon dioxide emissions? Evidence for sub-Saharan Africa countries. Renewable energy, 127, 1011-1016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.05.043
13. Aslan, A., Ilhan, O., Usama, A. M., Savranlar, B., Polat, M. A., Metawa, N., & Raboshuk, A. (2024). Effect of economic policy uncertainty on CO2 with the discrimination of renewable and non renewable energy consumption. Energy, 291, 130382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2024.130382
14. Aydin, M., & Bozatli, O. (2023). The impacts of the refugee population, renewable energy consumption, carbon emissions, and economic growth on health expenditure in Turkey: new evidence from Fourier-based analyses. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(14), 41286-41298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-25181-8
15. Azam, M., Khan, A. Q., Abdullah, H. B., & Qureshi, M. E. (2016). The impact of CO2 emissions on economic growth: evidence from selected higher CO2 emissions economies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(7), 6376-6389. doi 10.1007/s11356-015-5817-4
16. Bilgili, F., Koçak, E., & Bulut, Ü. (2016). The dynamic impact of renewable energy consumption on CO2 emissions: a revisited Environmental Kuznets Curve approach. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 54, 838-845. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.080
17. Bilgili, F., Kuşkaya, S., Khan, M., Awan, A., & Türker, O. (2021). The roles of economic growth and health expenditure on CO2 emissions in selected Asian countries: a quantile regression model approach. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(33), 44949-44972. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13639-6
18. Chaabouni, S., Zghidi, N., & Mbarek, M. B. (2016). On the causal dynamics between CO2 emissions, health expenditures and economic growth. Sustainable cities and society, 22, 184-191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2016.02.001
19. Chen, C., Pinar, M., & Stengos, T. (2022). Renewable energy and CO2 emissions: New evidence with the panel threshold model. Renewable Energy, 194, 117-128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.05.095
20. Cheng, C., Ren, X., Zhang, M., & Wang, Z. (2024). The nexus among CO2 emission, health expenditure and economic development in the OECD countries: New insights from a cross-sectional ARDL model. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 31(11), 16746-16769. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-32081-y
21. Choi, E., Heshmati, A., & Cho, Y. (2010). An empirical study of the relationships between CO2 emissions, economic growth and openness (No. 5304). IZA Discussion Papers.
22. Çobanoğulları, G. (2024). Exploring the link between CO2 emissions, health expenditure, and economic growth in Türkiye: evidence from the ARDL model. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 26(11), 29605-29619. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-04835-8
23. Das, N., Murshed, M., Rej, S., Bandyopadhyay, A., Hossain, M. E., Mahmood, H., ... & Bera, P. (2023). Can clean energy adoption and international trade contribute to the achievement of India’s 2070 carbon neutrality agenda? Evidence using quantile ARDL measures. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 30(3), 262-277. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504509.2022.2139780
24. Dickey, D. A., & Fuller, W. A. (1979). Distribution of the estimators for autoregressive time series with a unit root. Journal of the American statistical association, 74(366a), 427-431. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1979.10482531
25. Dilanchiev, A., Umair, M., & Haroon, M. (2024). How causality impacts the renewable energy, carbon emissions, and economic growth nexus in the South Caucasus Countries?. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 31(22), 33069-33085. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-33430-7
26. Dogan, E., & Seker, F. (2016). The influence of real output, renewable and non-renewable energy, trade and financial development on carbon emissions in the top renewable energy countries. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 60, 1074-1085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.02.006
27. Dogan, E., & Turkekul, B. (2016). CO2 emissions, real output, energy consumption, trade, urbanization and financial development: testing the EKC hypothesis for the USA. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(2), 1203-1213. Doi: 10.1007/s11356-015-5323-8
28. Dritsaki, M., & Dritsaki, C. (2024). The relationship between health expenditure, CO2 emissions, and economic growth in G7: Evidence from heterogeneous panel data. Journal of the Knowledge Economy, 15(1), 4886-4911. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-023-01349-y
29. Farghali, M., Osman, A. I., Chen, Z., Abdelhaleem, A., Ihara, I., Mohamed, I. M., ... & Rooney, D. W. (2023). Social, environmental, and economic consequences of integrating renewable energies in the electricity sector: a review. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 21(3), 1381-1418. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-023-01587-1
30. Gao, J., & Zhang, L. (2014). Electricity consumption–economic growth–CO2 emissions nexus in sub‐Saharan Africa: Evidence from panel cointegration. African Development Review, 26(2), 359-371. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8268.12087
31. Genç, M. C., Ekinci, A., & Sakarya, B. (2022). The impact of output volatility on CO2 emissions in Turkey: testing EKC hypothesis with Fourier stationarity test. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29(2), 3008-3021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15448-3
32. Ghorashi, N., & Rad, A. A. (2017). CO2 emissions, health expenditures and economic growth in Iran: application of dynamic simultaneous equation models.
33. Gielen, D., Boshell, F., Saygin, D., Bazilian, M. D., Wagner, N., & Gorini, R. (2019). The role of renewable energy in the global energy transformation. Energy strategy reviews, 24, 38-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2019.01.006
34. Govindaraju, V. C., & Tang, C. F. (2013). The dynamic links between CO2 emissions, economic growth and coal consumption in China and India. Applied Energy, 104, 310-318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.10.042
35. Grossman, G. M., & Krueger, A. B. (1991). Environmental impacts of a North American free trade agreement, NBER working paper, 3914.
36. Halicioglu, F. (2009). An econometric study of CO2 emissions, energy consumption, income and foreign trade in Turkey. Energy policy, 37(3), 1156-1164. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2008.11.012
37. Hamed, L. M., Dhaouadi, L., Zehri, F. A. T. M. A., Tiba, S., Besser, H., Karbout, N., & Emara, E. I. (2024). Examining the relationship between the economic growth, energy use, CO2 emissions, and water resources: Evidence from selected MENA countries. Journal of the Saudi society of Agricultural Sciences, 23(6), 415-423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2024.04.002
38. Heil, M. T., & Selden, T. M. (1999). Panel stationarity with structural breaks: carbon emissions and GDP. Applied Economics Letters, 6(4), 223-225. https://doi.org/10.1080/135048599353384
39. Inal, V., Addi, H. M., Çakmak, E. E., Torusdağ, M., & Çalışkan, M. (2022). The nexus between renewable energy, CO2 emissions, and economic growth: Empirical evidence from African oil-producing countries. Energy Reports, 8, 1634-1643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2021.12.051
40. Inglesi-Lotz, R., & Dogan, E. (2018). The role of renewable versus non-renewable energy to the level of CO2 emissions a panel analysis of sub-Saharan Africa’s Βig 10 electricity generators. Renewable energy, 123, 36-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.02.041
41. Işık, C., Bulut, U., Ongan, S., Islam, H., & Irfan, M. (2024). Exploring how economic growth, renewable energy, internet usage, and mineral rents influence CO2 emissions: A panel quantile regression analysis for 27 OECD countries. Resources Policy, 92, 105025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2024.105025
42. Kadioglu, I., Turan, O., & Gurbuz, I. B. (2025). ARDL Bound Testing Approach for a Green Low-Carbon Circular Economy in Turkey. Sustainability, 17(6), 2714. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062714
43. Kalai, M., & Zghidi, N. (2019). Foreign direct investment, trade, and economic growth in MENA countries: empirical analysis using ARDL bounds testing approach. Journal of the Knowledge Economy, 10(1), 397-421. Doi: 10.1007/s13132-017-0460-6
44. Kanjilal, K., & Ghosh, S. (2013). Environmental Kuznet’s curve for India: Evidence from tests for cointegration with unknown structuralbreaks. Energy Policy, 56, 509-515. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.01.015
45. Karaaslan, A., & Camkaya, S. (2022). The relationship between CO2 emissions, economic growth, health expenditure, and renewable and non-renewable energy consumption: Empirical evidence from Turkey. Renewable Energy, 190, 457-466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.03.139
46. Kasman, A., & Duman, Y. S. (2015). CO2 emissions, economic growth, energy consumption, trade and urbanization in new EU member and candidate countries: a panel data analysis. Economic modelling, 44, 97-103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2014.10.022
47. Khan, A., Hussain, J., Bano, S., & Chenggang, Y. (2020). The repercussions of foreign direct investment, renewable energy and health expenditure on environmental decay? An econometric analysis of B&RI countries. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 63(11), 1965-1986. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2019.1692796
48. Kumar, P., & Radulescu, M. (2025). CO2 emission, life expectancy, and economic growth: A triad analysis of Sub-Saharan African countries. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 27(5), 11955-11982. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-04391-7
49. Kuri, B. C., Nahiduzzaman, M., Dhar, B. K., Shabbir, R., & Karim, R. (2025). Macroeconomic Drivers of Sustainable Tourism Development in Bangladesh: An ARDL Bounds Testing Approach. Sustainable Development, 33(3), 3918-3940. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.3328
50. Li, B., & Haneklaus, N. (2021). The role of renewable energy, fossil fuel consumption, urbanization and economic growth on CO2 emissions in China. Energy Reports, 7, 783-791. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2021.09.194
51. Long, X., Naminse, E. Y., Du, J., & Zhuang, J. (2015). Nonrenewable energy, renewable energy, carbon dioxide emissions and economic growth in China from 1952 to 2012. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 52, 680-688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.176
52. Lu, Z. N., Chen, H., Hao, Y., Wang, J., Song, X., & Mok, T. M. (2017). The dynamic relationship between environmental pollution, economic development and public health: Evidence from China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 166, 134-147. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.08.010
53. Mikayilov, J. I., Galeotti, M., & Hasanov, F. J. (2018). The impact of economic growth on CO2 emissions in Azerbaijan. Journal of cleaner production, 197, 1558-1572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.06.269
54. Mitić, P., Fedajev, A., Radulescu, M., & Rehman, A. (2023). The relationship between CO2 emissions, economic growth, available energy, and employment in SEE countries. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(6), 16140-16155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-23356-3
55. Narayan, P. K. (2005). The saving and investment nexus for China: evidence from cointegration tests. Applied economics, 37(17), 1979-1990. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036840500278103
56. Nawab, T., Muneza, C., & Afghan, M. (2021). Impact of renewable energy consumption and health expenditure on air pollutants: Implications for sustainable development in ASEAN countries. iRASD Journal of Energy & Environment, 2(2), 78-89. https://doi.org/10.52131/jee.2021.0202.0019
57. Nazir, M. I., Nazir, M. R., Hashmi, S. H., & Ali, Z. (2018). Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis for Pakistan: Empirical evidence form ARDL bound testing and causality approach. International journal of green energy, 15(14-15), 947-957. https://doi.org/10.1080/15435075.2018.1529590
58. Nosheen, M., Iqbal, J., & Khan, H. U. (2021). Analyzing the linkage among CO2 emissions, economic growth, tourism, and energy consumption in the Asian economies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(13), 16707-16719. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11759-z
59. Odhiambo, N. M. (2009). Energy consumption and economic growth nexus in Tanzania: An ARDL bounds testing approach. Energy policy, 37(2), 617-622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2008.09.077
60. Omri, A., Nguyen, D. K., & Rault, C. (2014). Causal interactions between CO2 emissions, FDI, and economic growth: Evidence from dynamic simultaneous-equation models. Economic Modelling, 42, 382-389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2014.07.026
61. Otim, J., Watundu, S., Mutenyo, J., & Bagire, V. (2025). Determinants of carbon dioxide emissions: role of renewable energy consumption, economic growth, urbanization and governance. SN Business & Economics, 5(3), 23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43546-025-00791-1
62. Pata, U. K. (2018). Renewable energy consumption, urbanization, financial development, income and CO2 emissions in Turkey: testing EKC hypothesis with structural breaks. Journal of cleaner production, 187, 770-779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.236
63. Pata, U. K., Naimoglu, M., Karlilar, S., & Kartal, M. T. (2024). Analyzing the EKC hypothesis for the top 10 energy-importing countries: a perspective for the COP27 targets. Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health, 17(5), 953-966. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-023-01490-2
64. Pesaran, M. H., & Timmermann, A. (2005). Small sample properties of forecasts from autoregressive models under structural breaks. Journal of Econometrics, 129(1-2), 183-217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2004.09.007
65. Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y., & Smith, R. J. (2001). Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships. Journal of applied econometrics, 16(3), 289-326. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.616
66. Phillips, P. C., & Perron, P. (1988). Testing for a unit root in time series regression. biometrika, 75(2), 335-346. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/75.2.335
67. Ponce de Leon Barido, D., & Marshall, J. D. (2014). Relationship between urbanization and CO2 emissions depends on income level and policy. Environmental science & technology, 48(7), 3632-3639. https://doi.org/10.1021/es405117n
68. Pradhan, R. P., Nair, M. S., Hall, J. H., & Bennett, S. E. (2024). Planetary health issues in the developing world: Dynamics between transportation systems, sustainable economic development, and CO2 emissions. Journal of Cleaner Production, 449, 140842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.140842
69. Raihan, A., Farhana, S., Muhtasim, D. A., Hasan, M. A. U., Paul, A., & Faruk, O. (2022). The nexus between carbon emission, energy use, and health expenditure: empirical evidence from Bangladesh. Carbon Research, 1(1), 30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44246-022-00030-4
70. Raihan, A. (2023). The dynamic nexus between economic growth, renewable energy use, urbanization, industrialization, tourism, agricultural productivity, forest area, and carbon dioxide emissions in the Philippines. Energy Nexus, 9, 100180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nexus.2023.100180
71. Rauf, A., Zhang, J., Li, J., & Amin, W. (2018). Structural changes, energy consumption and carbon emissions in China: empirical evidence from ARDL bound testing model. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 47, 194-206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2018.08.010
72. Saidi, K., & Omri, A. (2020). The impact of renewable energy on carbon emissions and economic growth in 15 major renewable energy-consuming countries. Environmental research, 186, 109567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109567
73. Salazar-Núñez, H. F., Venegas-Martínez, F., & Lozano-Díez, J. A. (2022). Assessing the interdependence among renewable and non-renewable energies, economic growth, and CO2 emissions in Mexico. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 24(11), 12850-12866. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01968-y
74. Shafiei, S., & Salim, R. A. (2014). Non-renewable and renewable energy consumption and CO2 emissions in OECD countries: a comparative analysis. Energy policy, 66, 547-556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.10.064
75. Shafik, N., & Bandyopadhyay, S. (1992). Economic growth and environmental quality: time-series and cross-country evidence (Vol. 904). World Bank Publications.
76. Shahbaz, M., Mutascu, M., & Azim, P. (2013). Environmental Kuznets curve in Romania and the role of energy consumption. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 18, 165-173. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.10.012
77. Shahbaz, M., Tiwari, A. K., & Nasir, M. (2013). The effects of financial development, economic growth, coal consumption and trade openness on CO2 emissions in South Africa. Energy policy, 61, 1452-1459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.07.006
78. Shahid, R., Shahid, H., Shijie, L., & Jian, G. (2024). Developing nexus between economic opening-up, environmental regulations, rent of natural resources, green innovation, and environmental upgrading of China-empirical analysis using ARDL bound-testing approach. Innovation and Green Development, 3(1), 100088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.igd.2023.100088
79. Shahnazi, R., & Shabani, Z. D. (2021). The effects of renewable energy, spatial spillover of CO2 emissions and economic freedom on CO2 emissions in the EU. Renewable Energy, 169, 293-307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.01.016
80. Suki, N. M., Sharif, A., Afshan, S., & Suki, N. M. (2020). Revisiting the environmental Kuznets curve in Malaysia: the role of globalization in sustainable environment. Journal of Cleaner Production, 264, 121669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121669
81. Sun, Y., Li, H., Andlib, Z., & Genie, M. G. (2022). How do renewable energy and urbanization cause carbon emissions? Evidence from advanced panel estimation techniques. Renewable Energy, 185, 996-1005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.12.112
82. Ullah, I., Ali, S., Shah, M. H., Yasim, F., Rehman, A., & Al-Ghazali, B. M. (2019). Linkages between trade, CO2 emissions and healthcare spending in China. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(21), 4298. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16214298
83. Voumik, L. C., Ridwan, M., Rahman, M. H., & Raihan, A. (2023). An investigation into the primary causes of carbon dioxide releases in Kenya: Does renewable energy matter to reduce carbon emission?. Renewable energy focus, 47, 100491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ref.2023.100491
84. Wang, Z., Asghar, M. M., Zaidi, S. A. H., & Wang, B. (2019). Dynamic linkages among CO2 emissions, health expenditures, and economic growth: empirical evidence from Pakistan. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26(15), 15285-15299. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-04876-x
85. WHO, (2020). COP24 Special Report: Health&Climate Change, Hermes Ofset Matbaacılık, ISBN:978-605-74967-1-3.(https://www.who.int/globalchange/publications/COP24-report-health-climate-change/en/).
86. Zafar, M. W., Mirza, F. M., Zaidi, S. A. H., & Hou, F. (2019). The nexus of renewable and nonrenewable energy consumption, trade openness, and CO2 emissions in the framework of EKC: evidence from emerging economies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26(15), 15162-15173. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-04912-w
87. Zaidi, S. A. H., Danish, Hou, F., & Mirza, F. M. (2018). The role of renewable and non-renewable energy consumption in CO2 emissions: a disaggregate analysis of Pakistan. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25(31), 31616-31629. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-3059-y
88. Zaidi, S., & Saidi, K. (2018). Environmental pollution, health expenditure and economic growth in the Sub-Saharan Africa countries: panel ARDL approach. Sustainable cities and society, 41, 833-840.
89. Zaman, K., & Abd-el Moemen, M. (2017). The influence of electricity production, permanent cropland, high technology exports, and health expenditures on air pollution in Latin America and the Caribbean Countries. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 76, 1004-1010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.103
90. Zhang, C., & Zhang, L. (2024). The relationship between toxic air pollution, health expenditure, and economic growth in the European Union: fresh evidence from the PMG-ARDL model. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 31(14), 21107-21123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-32342-w