Entegrasyon Paradoksunun Tanıtımı ve Çeşitli Sosyal Psikoloji Perspektiflerinden Bir Derlemesi

Öz

Entegrasyon paradoksuna göre ev sahibi topluma başarılı uyum sağlamış gibi görünen iyi eğitimli ve yüksek gelirli göçmenler esasen ayrımcılığı en çok hisseden ve göç edilen topluma psikolojik olarak en uzak hisseden bireylerdir. Türkiye, dünya çapında en çok mülteciye ev sahipliği yapmaktadır, ancak Türkçe literatürde entegrasyon paradoksuyla ilgili yayımlanmış çalışma sayısı azdır. Bu çalışmanın amacı, entegrasyon paradoksunu teorik arka planıyla beraber tanıtmak, paradoksu destekleyen ve desteklemeyen çalışmaları sıralamak ve paradoksu eleştirel bir şekilde tartışmaktır. Ayrıca entegrasyon paradoksu; kültürleşme, göreli yoksunluk ve gruplar arası temas gibi sosyal psikoloji perspektiflerinden ilgili çalışmalar ışığında incelenmiştir. Entegrasyon paradoksunun bir başka potansiyel sonucu olan ve literatürde geniş bir yer edinen göçmenlerin geri dönme niyetleri ile ilgili çalışmalar da tanıtılmış ve tartışılmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Entegrasyon Paradoksu
• Göçmen Uyumu
• Algılanan Ayrımcılık
• Kültürleşme
• Geri Dönüş

An Overview of the Integration Paradox and Insights from Different Social Psychology Perspectives

Öz

According to the integration paradox, well-educated and high-income migrants who appear to be integrated successfully into the host society are, in fact, the ones who feel the most discriminated against and the most psychologically distant from the host society. Türkiye hosts the largest number of refugees worldwide. However, few published studies on the integration paradox exist in Turkish literature. The aim of this study is to introduce the integration paradox with its theoretical background and to list and critically discuss the studies that support and non-support the hypothesis. In addition, the integration paradox is examined in the light of relevant studies from social psychology perspectives, such as acculturation, relative deprivation, and intergroup contact. This study also introduced and discussed migrants’ intentions to return, another potential consequence of the integration paradox and a new and expanding research area in the literature.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Integration Paradox
• Immigrant Adjustment
• Perceived Discrimination
• Acculturation
• Repatriation

Kaynakça

1. Alba, R., & Nee, V. (2003). Remaking the American mainstream: Assimilation and contemporary immigration. Harvard University Press.
2. Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Addison Wesley.
3. Alrababah, A., Masterson, D., Casalis, M., Hangartner, D., & Weinstein, J. (2023). The dynamics of refugee return: Syrian refugees and their migration intentions. British Journal of Political Science, 53(4), 1108-1131. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123422000667
4. Barlow, F. K., Paolini, S., Pedersen, A., Hornsey, M. J., Radke, H. R. M., Harwood, J., Rubin, M., & Sibley, C. G. (2012). The Contact Caveat: Negative Contact Predicts Increased Prejudice More Than Positive Contact Predicts Reduced Prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(12), 1629-1643. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212457953
5. Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 5–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1997.tb01087.x
6. Berry, J. W., Kim U., Minde, T., & Mok, D. (1987). Comparative studies of acculturative stress. International Migration Review, 21(3), 491–511. https://doi.org/10.1177/019791838702100303
7. Berry, J. W., Phinney, J. S., Sam, D. L., & Vedder, P. (2006). Immigrant youth: Acculturation, identity, and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 55(3), 303-332. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00256.x
8. Bobowik, M., Martinovic, B., Basabe, N., Barsties, L. S., & Wachter, G. (2017). ‘Healthy’ identities? Revisiting rejection-identification and rejection-disidentification models among voluntary and forced immigrants. European Journal of Social Psychology, 47(7), 818-831. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2306

9. Branscombe, N. R., Schmitt, M. T., & Harvey, R. D. (1999). Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(1), 135–149. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.1.135
10. Cheung, N. W., & Yao, W. (2022). The integration paradox: discrimination, institutional trust, and settlement intention among highly educated mainland Chinese migrants in Hong Kong and Macao. Asian Population Studies, 18(2), 150-168. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441730.2022.2078932
11. Coll, C. G., & Marks, A. K. (Eds.). (2012). The immigrant paradox in children and adolescents: Is becoming American a developmental risk? American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/13094-000
12. Cronin, T. J., Levin, S., Branscombe, N. R., van Laar, C., & Tropp, L. R. (2012). Ethnic identification in response to perceived discrimination protects well-being and promotes activism: A longitudinal study of Latino college students. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 15(3), 393-407. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430211427171
13. Crosby, F. (1976). A model of egoistical relative deprivation. Psychological Review, 83(2), 85–113. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.83.2.85
14. Damen, R., Dagevos, J., & Huijnk, W. (2024). Feeling at home? A dynamic analysis of the impact of discrimination, refugee-specific, and participation characteristics on recently arrived refugees’ belonging. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 25(2024), 1547-1569. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-024-01135-y
15. Davis, J. A. (1959). A formal interpretation of the theory of relative deprivation. Sociometry, 22(4), 280-296. https://doi.org/10.2307/2786046
16. de Vroome, T., Martinovic, B., & Verkuyten, M. (2014a). The integration paradox: Level of education and immigrants’ attitudes towards natives and the host society. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20(2), 166–175. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034946
17. de Vroome, T., Verkuyten, M., & Martinovic, B. (2014b). Host national identification of immigrants in the Netherlands. International Migration Review, 48(1), 76-102. https://doi.org/10.1111/imre.12063
18. Di Iasio, V., & Wahba, J. (2024). The Determinants of Refugees’ Destinations: Where do refugees locate within the EU? World Development, 177, 106533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2024.106533
19. Di Saint Pierre, F., Martinovic, B., & De Vroome, T. (2015). Return wishes of refugees in the Netherlands: The role of integration, host national identification and perceived discrimination. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 41(11), 1836-1857. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2015.1023184
20. Diehl, C., & Trittler, S. (2024). Highly skilled and highly skeptical? How education and origin shape newcomers’ relationship with their new home. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 50(7), 1777–1802. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2024.2315356
21. Eberl, J.-M., Meltzer, C. E., Heidenreich, T., Herrero, B., Theorin, N., Lind, F., Berganza, R., Boomgaarden, H. G., Schemer, C., & Strömbäck, J. (2018). The European media discourse on immigration and its effects: A literature review. Annals of the International Communication Association, 42(3), 207-223. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2018.1497452
22. Entzinger, H., & Dourleijn, E. (2008). De lat steeds hoger: De leefwereld van jongeren in een multi-etnische stad [Increasing demands: The world of youth in a multi-ethnic city]. Van Gorcum.
23. Erdoğan, M. M. (2020). Suriyeliler Barometresi-2019: Suriyelilerle Uyum İçinde Yaşamın Çerçevesi. Orion Kitabevi.
24. Geurts, N., Davids, T., Lubbers, M., & Spierings, N. (2022). A cosmopolitan explanation of the integration paradox: A mixed methods approach. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 45(16), 412-434. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2022.2093613
25. Geurts, N., Davids, T., & Spierings, N. (2021). The lived experience of an integration paradox: why high-skilled migrants from Turkey experience little national belonging in the Netherlands. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 47(1), 69-87. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1770062
26. Geurts, N., Lubbers, M., & Spierings, N. (2020). Structural position and relative deprivation among recent migrants: A longitudinal take on the integration paradox. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 46(9), 1828-1848. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2019.1675499
27. Gheorghiu, M., Pehrson, S., & Christ, O. (2022). Status, relative deprivation, and moral devaluation of immigrants. British Journal of Social Psychology, 61(2), 510-531. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12493
28. Gordon, M. M. (1964). Assimilation in American life. Oxford University Press.
29. Graf, S., Paolini, S., & Rubin, M. (2014). Negative intergroup contact is more influential, but positive intergroup contact is more common: Assessing contact prominence and contact prevalence in five Central European countries. European Journal of Social Psychology, 44(6), 536-547. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2052
30. Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102(1), 4–27. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-295X.102.1.4
31. Haslam, S. A., Jetten, J., Postmes, T., & Haslam, C. (2009). Social identity, health and well-being: An emerging agenda for applied psychology. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 58(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2008.00379.x
32. Jasinskaja-Lahti, I., Liebkind, K., & Solheim, E. (2009). To identify or not to identify? National disidentification as an alternative reaction to perceived ethnic discrimination. Applied Psychology, 58(1), 105-128. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2008.00384.x
33. Kağıtçıbaşı, Ç. (2014). Kültürleşme ve aile ilişkileri. Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 17(34), 120-127. https://www.tpd.com.tr/tr/yayinlar/dergiler/1031828/tpy1301996120140000m000078.pdf
34. Kayaoğlu, A., Şahin-Mencütek, Z., & Erdoğan, M. M. (2022). Return aspirations of Syrian refugees in Turkey. Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, 20(4), 561-583. https://doi.org/10.1080/15562948.2021.1955172
35. Kuppens, E., van den Broek, T. (2022). Social integration and mental health of Somali refugees in the Netherlands: the role of perceived discrimination. BMC Public Health 22(1), 2223. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14655-y
36. Lajevardi, N., Oskooii, K. A. R., Walker, H. L., & Westfall, A. L. (2020), The paradox between integration and perceived discrimination among American Muslims. Political Psychology, 41(3), 587-606. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12640
37. Lindemann, K. (2020). How labor-market integration affects perceptions of discrimination: School-to-apprenticeship transitions of youth with migration background in Germany. International Migration Review, 54(4), 1045-1071. https://doi.org/10.1177/0197918319885892
38. Marks, A. K., Ejesi, K., & Coll, C. G. (2014). Understanding the U.S. immigrant paradox in childhood and adolescence. Child Development Perspectives, 8(2), 59-64. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12071
39. Martinovic, B. (2013). The inter-ethnic contacts of immigrants and natives in the Netherlands: A two-sided perspective. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 39(1), 69-85. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2013.723249
40. Mazzoni, D., Pancani, L., Marinucci, M., & Riva, P. (2020). The dual path of the rejection (dis)identification model: A study on adolescents with a migrant background. European Journal of Social Psychology, 50(4), 799-809. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2672
41. Montemitro, C., D’Andrea, G., Cesa, F., Martinotti, G., Pettorruso, M., Giannantonio, M. D., Muratori, R., & Tarricone, I. (2021). Language proficiency and mental disorders among migrants: A systematic review. European Psychiatry, 64(1), e49. https://doi.org/10.1192/j.eurpsy.2021.2224
42. Nkulu Kalengayi, F. K., Baroudi, M., & Hurtig, A.-K. (2024). Prevalence of perceived discrimination, determinants and associations with self-rated general and sexual health, healthcare utilization and self-perceived integration: A cross-sectional survey of migrants in Sweden. BMC Public Health, 24(1), 699. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18160-2
43. Oberg, K. (1960). Cultural shock: Adjustment to new cultural environments. Practical Anthropology, os-7(4), 177–182. https://doi.org/10.1177/009182966000700405
44. Özkan, Z., & Ergün, N. (2022). Extended Contact with Turks and Syrian Refugees’ Intention to Migrate: The Mediating Roles of Ingroup and Outgroup Identification. In H. Çakal & S. Husnu (Eds), Examining Complex Intergroup Relations: Through the Lens of Turkey (pp. 224-238). Routledge.
45. Özkan, Z., Ergün, N., & Çakal, H. (2021). Positive versus negative contact and refugees’ intentions to migrate: The mediating role of perceived discrimination, life satisfaction and identification with the host society among Syrian refugees in Turkey. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 31(4), 438-451. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2508
46. Özkan, Z., Eryılmaz, A. & Ergün, N. (2023). Intentions to return and migrate to the Third Countries: A socio-demographic investigation among Syrians in Turkey. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 24(2023), 1571–1587 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-023-01031-x
47. Palacios, N., Guttmannova, K., & Chase-Lansdale, P. L. (2008). Early reading achievement of children in immigrant families: Is there an immigrant paradox? Developmental Psychology, 44(5), 1381-1395. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012863
48. Pettigrew, T. F., & Meertens, R. W. (1995). Subtle and blatant prejudice in western Europe. European Journal of Social Psychology, 25(1), 57-75. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420250106
49. Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(5), 751–783. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751
50. Portes, A., Parker, R. N., & Cobas, J. A. (1980). Assimilation or consciousness: Perceptions of US society among recent Latin American immigrants to the United States. Social forces, 59(1), 200-224. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/59.1.200
51. Putnam, R. D. (2007). E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and Community in the Twenty-first Century The 2006 Johan Skytte Prize Lecture. Scandinavian Political Studies, 30(2), 137-174. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9477.2007.00176.x
52. Ramos, M. R., Cassidy, C., Reicher, S., & Haslam, S. A. (2012). A longitudinal investigation of the rejection–identification hypothesis. British Journal of Social Psychology, 51(4), 642-660. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.2011.02029.x
53. Redfield, R., Linton, R., & Herskovits, M. J. (1936). Memorandum for the study of acculturation. American Anthropologist, 38(1), 149-152. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1936.38.1.02a00330
54. Runciman, W. G. (1966). Relative deprivation and social justice. Kegan-Paul.
55. Sakallı Uğurlu, N., & Akbaş, G. (2013). Namus kültürlerinde “namus” ve “namus adına kadına şiddet”: Sosyal psikolojik açıklamalar. Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 16(32), 76-91. https://hdl.handle.net/11511/74520
56. Schaeffer, M., & Kas, J. (2023). The integration paradox: A review and meta-analysis of the complex relationship between integration and reports of discrimination. International Migration Review. https://doi.org/10.1177/01979183231170809
57. Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., Postmes, T., & Garcia, A. (2014). The consequences of perceived discrimination for psychological well-being: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 921–948. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035754
58. Sirin, S. R., & Sin, E. J. (2023). Meta-analysis on the relation between acculturation and academic performance: Testing the immigrant paradox. Educational Research Review, 39, 100526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100526
59. Sizemore, D. S., & Milner, W. T. (2004). Hispanic media use and perceptions of discrimination: Reconsidering ethnicity, politics, and socioeconomics. Sociological Quarterly, 45(4), 765-784. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2004.tb02313.x
60. Smith, H. J., Pettigrew, T. F., Pippin, G. M., & Bialosiewicz, S. (2012). Relative deprivation: A theoretical and meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16(3), 203-232. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868311430825
61. Steinmann, J. P. (2019). The paradox of integration: Why do higher educated new immigrants perceive more discrimination in Germany? Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 45(9), 1377-1400. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2018.1480359
62. Tolsma, J., Lubbers, M., & Gijsberts, M. (2012). Education and cultural integration among ethnic minorities and natives in the Netherlands: A test of the integration paradox. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 38(5), 793-813. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2012.667994
63. Tsegay, S. M. (2022). Hope springs eternal: Exploring the early settlement experiences of highly educated Eritrean refugees in the UK. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 23(3), 1235-1255. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-021-00883-5
64. Tuppat, J., & Gerhards, J. (2021). Immigrants’ first names and perceived discrimination: A contribution to understanding the integration paradox. European Sociological Review, 37(1), 121-135. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcaa041
65. UNHCR. (2023, Haziran 24). Welcome to UNHCR’s Refugee Population Statistics Database. The UN Refugee Agency. https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/
66. Uskul, A. K., Cross, S. E., Sunbay, Z., Gercek-Swing, B., & Ataca, B. (2012). Honor bound: The cultural construction ofhonor in Turkey and the Northern United States. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 43(7), 1131–1151. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022111422258
67. Uskul, A. K., Kirchner-Häusler, A., Vignoles, V. L., Rodriguez-Bailón, R., Castillo, V. A., Cross, S. E., Yalçın, M. G., Harb, C., Husnu, S., Ishii, K., Jin, S., Karamaouna, P., Kafetsios, K., Kateri, E., Matamoros-Lima, J., Liu, D., Miniesy, R., Na, J., Özkan, Z., . . . Uchida, Y. (2023). Neither Eastern nor Western: Patterns of independence and interdependence in Mediterranean societies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 125(3), 471–495. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000342
68. van Maaren, F. M., & van de Rijt, A. (2020). No integration paradox among adolescents. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 46(9), 1756-1772. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2018.1551126
69. Verkuyten, M. (2016). The integration paradox: Empiric evidence from the Netherlands. American Behavioral Scientist, 60(5-6), 583-596. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764216632838
70. Verkuyten, M., & Yildiz, A. A. (2007). National (dis)identification and ethnic and religious identity: A study among Turkish-Dutch Muslims. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(10), 1448-1462. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207304276
71. Walker, I., & Smith, H. (Eds.). (2002). Relative deprivation: Specification, development and integration. Cambridge University Press
72. Wodtke, G. T. (2012). The impact of education on intergroup attitudes: A multiracial analysis. Social Psychology Quarterly, 75(1), 80-106. https://doi.org/10.1177/0190272511430234
73. Wölfer, R., Caro, D. H., & Hewstone, M. (2019). Academic benefit of outgroup contact for immigrant and nonimmigrant students. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 22(3), 419-433. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430218809882
74. Yazdiha, H. (2019). Exclusion through acculturation? Comparing first-and second-generation European Muslims’ perceptions of discrimination across four national contexts. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 42(5), 782-800. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2018.1444186
75. Zimmermann, J., Greischel, H., Jonkmann, K., & Neyer, F. J. (2021). Growth all along the road? Personality development and international contacts of (in)experienced sojourners. European Journal of Personality, 35(4), 581–597. https://doi.org/10.1177/0890207020988439