İşçi Dövizleri- CO2 Emisyonu İlişkisi: Türkiye Analizi

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 13 Sayı: 2, 276 - 298, 20.06.2023

Ayşe Arı

https://doi.org/10.12658/M0707

Öz

Bu çalışmada işçi dövizlerinin çevresel bozulmalar üzerindeki etkisi araştırılmaktadır. İşçi dövizlerinin CO2 emisyonu üzerindeki etkisi ekonomik büyüme, enerji tüketimi, finansal gelişme ve şehirleşme dikkate alınarak incelenmiştir. Çalışmada Türkiye ekonomisi 1975-2015 dönemi için Bayer ve Hanck (2012) eşbütünleşme testi ile FMOLS, DOLS ve CCR yöntemleri kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Elde edilen bulgulara göre, işçi dövizleri CO2 emisyonunu pozitif etkilemektedir. Bu durumda işçi dövizlerinin çevresel bozulmaları artırdığı görülmektedir. Ekonomik büyüme, enerji tüketimi ve şehirleşmenin de CO2 emisyonunu artırdığı tespit edilmiştir. Finansal gelişmenin ise, CO2 emisyonunu azalttığı belirlenmiştir. Sonuç olarak, otoriteler çevresel bozulmaları azaltmak için işçi dövizlerini üretici ve tüketicilerin yenilenebilir enerji ve çevre dostu teknoloji alanlarına kaydıracak şekilde teşvikler uygulamalıdır. Ayrıca fosil yakıttan yenilenebilir enerjiye geçişi hızlandıracak, finansal gelişmeyi destekleyecek ve kırsal kalınmayı sağlayacak politikalara önem vermelidir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

İşçi dövizleri, CO2 emisyonu, ekonomik büyüme, finansal gelişme, şehirleşme, Türkiye

The Nexus Between Remittances and CO2 Emissions: An Analysis of Türkiye

Öz

This study investigates the effect of remittances on environmental degradation, examining the effects of remittances on CO2 emissions by considering economic growth, energy consumption, financial development, and urbanization. The study analyzes the Turkish economy over the period of 1975-2015 using the Bayer and Hanck (2012) cointegration test and the fully modified ordinary least square (FMOLS), dynamic ordinary least square (DOLS), and canonical cointegrating regression (CCR) methods. According to the findings, remittances are seen to have a positive effect on CO2 emissions. Therefore, remittances are seen to increase environmental degradation. In addition, economic growth, energy consumption, and urbanization have also been determined to cause CO2 emissions to increase. Meanwhile, financial development was determined to contribute to a decrease in CO2 emissions. As a result, authorities that aim to reduce environmental degradation should implement incentives for producers and consumers to transfer remittances toward renewable energy and environmentally friendly technologies. In addition, authorities should pay attention to policies that will accelerate the transition from fossil fuel to renewable energy, support financial development, and ensure rural development.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Workers remittances, CO2 emissions, economic growth, financial development, urbanization, Türkiye

Kaynakça

• Agbede, E.A., Bani, Y., Azman-Saini, W. N. W. & Naseem, N. A. M. (2021). The impact of energy consumption on environmental quality: empirical evidence from the MINT countries, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28, 54117–54136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14407-2
• Ahmad, M., Haq, Z., Khan, Z., Khattak, S. I., Rahman, Z. & Khan, S. (2019). Does the inflow of remittances cause environmental degradation? Empirical evidence from China, Economic Research- Ekonomska Istraživanja, 32(1), 2099-2121. DOI: 10.1080/1331677X.2019.1642783
• Al-mulali, U., Fereidouni , H.G., Lee , J.Y.M., Binti, C.N. & Sab, C. (2013). Exploring the relationship between urbanization, energy consumption, and CO2 emission in MENA countries, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 23,107–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.02.041
• Alshubiri, F. & Elheddad, M. (2020). Foreign finance, economic growth and CO2 emissions Nexus in OECD countries, International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 12(2),161-181. DOI 10.1108/IJCCSM-12-2018-0082
• Alper, A. M. (2005). İşçi dövizlerini belirleyen makro ekonomik etkenler: Türkiye örneği. Central Bank of Turkey, http://www3.tcmb.gov.tr/kutuphane/TURKCE/tezler/ahmetmuratalper.pdf.
• Altıntaş, N. (2020). Kentleşme ve ekonomik büyümenin çevresel bozulmaya etkisi: Türkiye örneği, Uluslararası Toplum Araştırmaları Dergisİ (OPUS), 15(26), 1-23. DOI: 10.26466/opus.725429
• Arı, A. (2021). Enflasyon ve işçi transferleri arasındaki nedensellik ilişkisi: Türkiye Örneği. İzmir İktisat Dergisi, 36(2), 399-407. Doi: 10.24988/ije.202136210
• Banerjee, A., Dolado, J. & Mestre, R. (1998). Error‐correction mechanism tests for cointegration in a single‐equation framework. Journal of Time Series Analysis, 19(3), 267-283. DOI:10.1111/1467- 9892.00091
• Bayer, C. & Hanck, C. (2012). Combining non‐cointegration tests. Journal of Time Series Analysis, 34(1), 83-95. DOI:10.1111/j.1467-9892.2012.00814.x
• Boswijk, H. P. (1995). Efficient inference on cointegration parameters in structural error correction models. Journal of Econometrics, 69(1),133-158. DOI:10.1016/0304-4076(94)01665-M
• Brown, L., McFarlane, A., Campbell, K. & Das, A. (2020). Remittances and CO2 emissions in Jamaica: An asymmetric modified environmental kuznets curve. The Journal of Economic Asymmetries, 22 (C) e00166, 1-13. DOI: 10.1016/j.jeca.2020.e00166
• BP (British Petroleum, 2021). British petroleum statistical review of world energy. https:// bp-stats-review-2021.
• Burck, J., Uhlich, T., Bals, C., Höhne N. & Nascimento, L. (2022). Climate change performance index (CCPI) Results-2022., 1-32. https://ccpi.org/wp-content/uploads/CCPI-2022-Results_2021-11-10_A4- 1.pdf
• Çetin, M., Ecevit, E. & Yücel, A.G. (2018). Structural Breaks, Urbanization and CO2 Emissions: Evidence from Turkey. Journal of Applied Economics and Business Research JAEBR, 8(2),122-139. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11776/7778
• Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı (2012) Türkiye Cumhuriyeti İklim Değişikliği Eylem Planı 2011 – 2023, https://webdosya.csb.gov.tr/db/iklim/editordosya/file/eylem%20planlari/Iklim%20Degisikligi%20Eylem%20Plani_TR.pdf
• Dickey, D. & Fuller, W. (1981). Likelihood ratio statistics for autoregressive time series with a unit root. Econometrica, 49(4), 1057-1072. DOI:10.2307/1912517
• Doğanlar, M., Mike, F., Kızılkaya, O. & Karlılar, S. (2021).Testing the long-run effects of economic growth, financial development and energy consumption on CO2 emissions in Turkey: new evidence from RALS cointegration test. Environmental Science and Pollution Research,28,32554–32563. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12661-y
• Ehigiamusoe, K. U., Lean, H. H., Babalola, S. J. & Poon, W.C. (2022). The roles of financial development and urbanization in degrading environment in Africa: Unravelling non-linear and moderating impacts. Energy Reports, 8, 1665-1677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2021.12.048
• Elbatanony, M., Attiaoui, I., Ali, I., Nasser N. & Tarchoun M. (2021). The environmental impact of remittance infows in developing countries: evidence from method of moments quantile regression. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(35),48222–48835. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13733-9
• Enerji ve Tabi Kaynaklar Bakanlığı (2021). Ulusal Enerji Verimliliği Eylem Planı 2017-2020 Gelişim Raporu, https://enerji.gov.tr//Media/Dizin/EVCED/tr/EnerjiVerimlili%C4%9Fi/UlusalEnerjiVerimlili%C4%9FiEylemPlan%C4%B1/Belgeler/UEVEP2020gelisimraportrv2.pdf
• Engle, R. & Granger, C. (1987). Cointegration and error correction: Representation, estimation and testing. Econometrica, 55(2), 251-276. https://doi.org/10.2307/1913236
• Hansen, B.E. & Phillips, P.C.B. (1990). Estimation and inference in models of cointegration: a simulation study. Advances in Econometrics, 8, 225-248.
• Inumula, K.M. & Deeppa, K. (2017). Cointegration between Energy Consumption, CO2 Emissions, and GDP in India. Jindal Journal of Business Research, 6(1) 1–13. DOI: 10.1177/2278682116684268
• Islam, S. (2022). Do personal remittances cause environmental pollution? Evidence from the top eight remittance‑receiving countries. Environmental Science and Pollution Research,29,35768–35779. DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-18175-x
• Jafri, A. H., Abbas, S., Abbas, S.M.Y. & Ullah, S. (2021). Caring for the environment: measuring the dynamic impact of remittances and FDI on CO2 emissions in China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29, 9164–9172 . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16180-8
• Jamil, K., Liu, D., Gul, R. F. , Hussain, Z., Mohsin, M., Qin, G. & Khan, F.U. (2021). Do remittance and renewable energy affect CO 2 emissions? An empirical evidence from selected G-20 countries, Energy & Environment, 0(0) 1–17, DOI: 10.1177/0958305X211029636
• Jiang, C. & Ma, X. (2019). The impact of financial development on carbon emissions: a global perspective. Sustainability, 11(19):1–22. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11195241
• Johansen, S. (1991). Estimation and hypothesis testing of cointegration vectors in Gaussian vector autoregressive models. Econometrica, 59(6),1551–1580. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2938278.pdf
• Karasoy, A. (2019). Drivers of carbon emissions in Turkey: considering asymmetric impacts. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26,9219–9231, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-04354-4
• Karedla, Y., Mishra, R. & Patel, N. (2021). The impact of economic growth, trade openness and manufacturing on CO2 emissions in India: an autoregressive distributive lag (ARDL) bounds test approach. Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Science, 26(52), 376-389, DOI 10.1108/JEFAS-05-2021-0057
• Khan, M.I., Khan, M. K., Dagar, V., Oryani, B., Akbar, S. S., Salem, S. & Dildar, S.M. (2021). Testing environmental kuznets curve in the USA: what role ınstitutional quality, globalization, energy consumption, financial development, and remittances can play? new evidence from dynamic ARDLsimulations approach. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 1, 1-15. doi: 10.3389/fenvs.2021.789715
• Khan, Z.U., Ahmad, M. & Khan, A. (2020). On the remittances-environment led hypothesis: empirical evidence from BRICS economies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 16460–16471. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11356-020-07999-8
• Khanal, A. (2021). Does energy consumption impact the environment? evidence from Australia using the Bayer-Hanck cointegration technique and the autoregressive distributed lag test. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 11(4), 185-194.
• Lahiani, A. (2020). Is financial development good for the environment? An asymmetric analysis with CO2 emissions in China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 7901–7909. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-07467-y
• Neog, Y. & Yadava AK. (2020). Nexus among CO2 emissions, remittances, and fnancial development: a NARDL approach for India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 44470–44481. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10198-0
• Li, Kaodui, Wang, X., Musah, M., Ning, Yi., Murshed, M., Alfred, M., Gong, Z., Xu, H., Yu, X., Yang, X., Shao, K. & Wang, L. (2022). Have international remittance infows degraded environmental quality? A carbon emission mitigation analysis for Ghana. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20094-4
• Nathaniel, S.P. (2020). Modelling urbanization, trade flow, economic growth and energy consumption with regards to the environment in Nigeria. GeoJournal, 85,1499–1513. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-019-10034
• Neog Y. & Yadava AK. (2020). Nexus among CO2 emissions, remittances, and fnancial development: a NARDL approach for India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27,44470–44481. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10198-0
• Ngouhouo, İ. & Nchofoung, T. (2021). Does trade openness affects employment in Cameroon?. Foreign Trade Review, 56(1), 105-116. DOI: 10.1177/0015732520961307
• Nwani, C., Alola, A. Adewale, O., Chimobi P., Adeleye, B. N. & Berkun, F.V. (2022). Responding to the environmental efects of remittances and trade liberalization in net‑importing economies: the role of renewable energy in Sub‑Saharan Africa, Economic Change and Restructuring, 1-31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10644-022-09403-6
• Phillips, P. C. & Perron, P. (1988). Testing for a unit root in time series regression. Biometrika, 75(2), 335-346. DOI:10.2307/2336182
• Osobajo, O. A., Otitoju, A., Otitoju, M. A. & Oke, A. (2020). The impact of energy consumption and economic growth on carbon dioxide emissions. Sustainability, 12, 7965, 1-16. doi:10.3390/su12197965
• Ozatac, N., Gokmenoglu, K. K. & Taspinar, N. (2017). Testing the EKC hypothesis by considering trade openness, urbanization, and fnancial development: the case of Turkey. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24(20), 16690–16701.
• Pata, U. K. (2018). The effect of urbanization and industrialization on carbon emissions in Turkey: evidence from ARDL bounds testing procedure. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25(8), 7740-7747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.236
• Rafindadi, A. A. (2015). Econometric prediction on the effects of financial development and trade openness on the german energy consumption: a startling revelation from the data set. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 5(1), 182-196. www.econjournals.com
• Rajpurohit, S. S. & Sharma, R. (2021). Impact of economic and financial development on carbon emissions: evidence from emerging Asian economies. Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, 32 (2), 145-159. https://doi.org/10.1108/MEQ-03-2020-0043
• Rahman ZU., Cai H. & Ahmad M. (2019). A new look at the remittancesenergy-environment nexus in the case of selected Asian nations. The Singapore Economic Review, 1–1:9. https://doi.org/10.1142/S0217590819500176
• Ruzi L., Lin, L., Jiang, L., Liu Y. & Lee C.C. (2021). Does technology advancement reduce aggregate carbon dioxide emissions? Evidence from 66 countries with panel threshold regression model. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28,19710–19725. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11955-x
• Park, J.Y. (1992). Canonical cointegrating regressions. Econometrica, 60(1), 119-143. https://doi.org/10.2307/2951679
• Sahoo, M., Babu, M. S. & Dash, U. (2017). Long run sustainability of current account balance of China and India: New evidence from combined cointegration test, Intellectual Economics, 000 (2017), 1- 14., http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intele.2017.02.002
• Sharma K., Bhattarai B. & Ahmed, S. (2019). Aid, growth, remittances and carbon emissions in Nepal. The Energy Journal, 40(1),129–141. https://doi.org/10.5547/01956574.40.1.ksha
• Stock, J. H. & Watson, M.W. (1993). A simple estimator of cointegrating vectors in higher order ıntegrated systems. Econometrica, 61(4), 783-820. https://doi.org/10.2307/2951763
• TÜİK (2022), Sera Gazı Emisyon İstatistikleri, 1990-2020, https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Sera-Gazi-Emisyon-Istatistikleri-1990-2020-45862
• Wang, Z., Zaman, S., Zaman, Q. & Rasool, S. F. (2021). Impact of remittances on carbon emission: fresh evidence from a panel of five remittance-receiving countries. Environmental Science and
• Pollution Research, 28, 52418–52430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14412-5
• WDI (World Development Indicators, 2022). https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators
• World Bank (2020) https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.ATM.CO2E.KT
• Yang, B., Jahanger, A. & Khan, M.A. (2020). Does the inflow of remittances and energy consumption increase CO2 emissions in the era of globalization? A global perspective. Air Qual Atmos Health, 13,1313–1328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-020-00885-9
• Yang, B., Jahanger, A. & Ali, M. (2021). Remittance inflows affect the ecological footprint in BICS countries: do technological innovation and financial development matter?. Environmental Science and Pollution Research,28, 23482–23500. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12400-3
• Yazdi, S. K. & Dariani, A. G. (2019). CO2 emissions, urbanisation and economic growth: evidence from Asian countries. Economic Research Ekonomska Istraživanja, 32(1), 510-530. DOI: 10.1080/1331677X.2018.1556107
• Yurdakul, F. & Baki, I. (2017). Correlations between energy consumption per capita, growth rate, industrialisation, trade volume, and urbanisation: the case of Turkey. New Trends and Issues Proceedings on Humanities and Social Sciences, 4(10), 118–127. https://doi.org/10.18844/prosoc.v4i10.3085
• Zafar, M. W., Saleem, M. M., Destek, M. A. & Caglar, AE. (2022). The dynamic linkage between remittances, export diversifcation, education, renewable energy consumption, economic growth, and CO2 emissions in top remittance-receiving countries. Sustainable Development, 30,165–175. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.2236