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Iran-Iraq War: The Employment of Chemical Weapons

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 6 Sayı: 1, 105 - 133, 30.06.2022
https://doi.org/10.33201/iranian.1084350

Öz

The use of chemical weapons as a method of warfare can be traced back to the earliest dates of human history. However, modern historians accept that chemical substances have been used as weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) since the early twentieth century. Although the first convention which banned the use of chemicals as a tool of warfare was the Strasbourg Agreement in 1675, chemical weapons (CWs) were used on a mass scale in the First World War and repeatedly thereafter. The Iran-Iraq war in the 1980s was an experiment in the use of CWs and it was during this war that CWs started to be used as conventional weapons of war. In this study, examples of chemical attacks during the Iran-Iraq War are discussed. The development of CWs such as the armaments deployed in the Middle East cannot be isolated from international politics, and should therefore not be studied without taking the major world powers into consideration. Therefore, attitudes of the US, the UK, France, Israel, Germany, Italy, and Russia, none of which were participants in this war, are also to be examined. In order to create the chronological and informational groundwork of this study, a literature review was conducted and printed works were used. US national intelligence reports and diplomatic correspondence were examined. The media during the period, statements by politicians, United Nations Security Council reports, and the memories of witnesses exposed to chemical attacks during the war are included to advance the study.

Destekleyen Kurum

TUBITAK

Teşekkür

The author acknowledges the support received from TÜBİTAK under grant 2219.

Kaynakça

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  • Ali, J. (2001). Chemical weapons and the Iran-Iraq War: A case study in noncompliance. The Nonproliferation Review, 8(1), 43-58, https://doi.org/10.1080/10736700108436837
  • American Chemical Society. (2014). Origins of the chemical weapons convention and the OPCW. https://www.acs.org/content/dam/acsorg/events/program-in-a-box/documents/2016-global-security/cw-history.pdf
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  • Bar-Yaacov, N. (2015). Achieving universality of the chemical weapons convention in the Middle East. Survival, 57(6), 159-180. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2015.1116162
  • Bothe, M. (1992). Convention on the prohibition of the development, production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons and on their destruction. United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law. http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/cpdpsucw/cpdpsucw.html
  • Byrnes, M. E., David A., King Philip., & M, Tierno. (Eds.). (2000). Nuclear, chemical and biological terrorism. Lewis Publishers.
  • Central Intelligence Agency Archive. (1984a). Iran-Iraq Military Situation Report 3. (Document Number: CIA-RDP86M00886R001100090010-3). https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP85T00287R001300900001-0.pdf
  • Central Intelligence Agency Archive. (1984b). Prospects for use of chemical weapons by Iraq against Iran over the next six months. (Document Number: CIA-RDP86M00886R001100090010-3). https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp86m00886r001100090010-3.
  • Chubin, S. (1989). The last phase of the Iran‐Iraq war: from stalemate to ceasefire, Third World Quarterly, 11(2), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436598908420154
  • Commission on the Intelligence Capabilities of the United States Regarding Weapons of Mass Destruction. (2005). Unclassified Version of the Report of the Commission on the Intelligence Capabilities of the United States Regarding Weapons of Mass Destruction. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/GPO-WMD
  • Conference on Disarmament. (1987). Final record of the 393rd plenary meeting held at the Palais des Nations. (CD/PV. 393) UN Library.
  • Cook, T. (2000). Against god-inspired conscience: the perception of gas warfare as a weapon of mass destruction, 1915–1939, War & Society, 18(1), 47-69. https://doi.org/10.1179/072924700791201379
  • Cordesman, A. H. (2014). Iran’s rocket and missile forces and strategic options. Center for Strategic & International Studies. https://www.csis.org/analysis/iran%E2%80%99s-rocket-and-missile-forces-and-strategic-options-0
  • DeShazer, M. (1990). Chemical weapons proliferation in the Middle East. U.S. Army War College.
  • Deutch, M. J. (1996). Conference on nuclear, biological, chemical weapons proliferation and terrorism. Central Intelligence Agency. https://irp.fas.org/cia/product/dci_speech_052396.html
  • Dış Haberler Servisi. (1988, March 22). Milliyet. p. 4.
  • Douglas, M. R. (2009). Did Britain use chemical weapons in mandatory Iraq? The Journal of Modern History, 81(4), 859-887. https://doi.org/10.1086/605488
  • Eisenstadt, M. (1994). Deja vu all over again? An assessment of Iran’s military buildup. In P. Clawson (Ed.), Iran’s strategic intentions and capabilities (pp. 93-153). Institute for National Strategic Studies. https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a278559.pdf
  • Eisenstein, M. (1993). Countering the proliferation of chemical weapons. RAND Institution. https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/2006/MR207.pdf
  • Everts, S. (2015). A brief history of chemical war. Distillations Science History Institute. https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/a-brief-history-of-chemical-war
  • Ferretti, M. (1990). The Iran-Iraq war: United Nations resolution of armed conflict. Villanova Law Review 35(1), 197-252. https://digitalcommons.law.villanova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2908&context=vlr
  • Firouzkouhi, M., Zargham-Boroujeni, A., Nouraei, M., Yousefi, H., & Holmes, C. A. (2013). Nurses experiences in chemical emergency departments: Iran-Iraq war 1980-1988, International Emergency Nursing, 21(2), 123-128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ienj.2012.03.002
  • Gay, H. (1987). Chemical and biological warfare. The International History Review, 9(3), 465-472, https://doi.org/10.1080/07075332.1987.9640453
  • Ghazvinian, J. (2020). America and Iran: A history 1720 to the present. Oneworld Publications.
  • Guthrie, R. (1984). A chronology of events relating to Iraq and chemical & biological warfare. https://www.cbw-events.org.uk/EXIQ84Q1.PDF
  • Hajjar, S., G. (1998). Security implications of the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction in the middle east. The Strategic Studies Institute. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep11596
  • Hiltermann, J. (2007). A poisonous affair America, Iraq and the gassing of Halabja. Cambridge University Press.
  • Hiltermann, J. (2010). Deep traumas, fresh ambitions: legacies of the Iran-Iraq war. (Report No. 257). Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP). https://merip.org/2011/01/deep-traumas-fresh-ambitions/
  • Irak’tan itiraf. (1988, July 2). Milliyet. p. 5.
  • Karsh, E. (2002). The Iran-Iraq War 1980-1988. Osprey Publication.
  • Kelidar, A. (1992). The wars of Saddam Hussein. Middle Eastern Studies, 28(4), 778-798. https://doi.org/10.1080/00263209208700928
  • Kimyasal Silaha Gözaltı. (1988, March 27). Milliyet. p. 4.
  • Kimyasal Suçlama. (1987, May 14). Milliyet. p. 8.
  • Lewis, E. (2015). Abdolsamad Rajabi Dehkordi. Tehran Peace Museum. http://www.tehranpeacemuseum.org/index.php/en/oral-history/194-english/oral-history-en/1302-abdolsamad-rajab-dehkordi-oral-history-en.html.
  • Linstrum, E. (2019). Domesticating chemical weapons: tear gas and the militarization of policing in the British imperial world, 1919-1981. The Journal of Modern History, 91(3), 557–585. https://doi.org/10.1086/704383
  • McCamley, N. J. (2006). Secret history of chemical warfare. Yorkshire, Pen and Sword Military.
  • McNaugher, L. T. (1990). Ballistic missiles and chemical weapons: the legacy of the Iran-Iraq War. International Security, 15(2), 5-34. https://doi.org/10.2307/2538864
  • Organization for The Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. (2006). Remembering all victims of chemical warfare. https://www.opcw.org/fileadmin/OPCW/Victims_Network/Just_Orange/01851.pdf
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  • Pelletiere, S., Douglas C., & Johnson, V. (1991). Lessons learned: Iran-Iraq war. U.S Department of The Navy, Strategic Studies Institute. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA232451.pdf
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  • Renfrew, N. M. (1987). Who started the war. Foreign Policy, (66), 98-108. https://doi.org/10.2307/1148666
  • Rothman, L. (2018, April 14). A long, brutal history of chemical weapons lies behind trump’s decision to order airstrikes in Syria. Time.
  • Russel, R. L. (2005). Iraq’s chemical weapons legacy: what others might learn from Saddam. Middle East Journal, 59(2), 187- 208. https://doi.org/10.3751/59.2.11
  • Salaz, N. (2010). Ortadoğu’nun Hiroşiması Halepçe. Rezan Yayınları.
  • Sarıbeyoğlu, M. (2004). Kitle imha silahlarının kullanımının yasaklanmasına ilişkin uluslararası düzenlemeler. İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi Dergisi, 3(5), 21-53, http://www.acarindex.com/dosyalar/makale/acarindex-1423905096.pdf
  • Sassoon, J. (2014). The east German ministry for state security and Iraq, 1968–1989. Journal of Cold War Studies, 16(1), 4-23. https://doi.org/10.1162/JCWS_a_00429
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İran-Irak Savaşı: Kimyasal Silahların Kullanımı

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 6 Sayı: 1, 105 - 133, 30.06.2022
https://doi.org/10.33201/iranian.1084350

Öz

Kimyasal silahların bir savaş yöntemi olarak kullanılması, insanlık tarihinin ilk zamanlarına kadar tarihlendirilebilir. Kimyasal maddelerin yirminci yüzyılın başlarından itibaren kitle imha silahları (KİS) olarak kullanıldığı modern dönem tarihçileri tarafından kabul etmektedir. Kimyasalların bir savaş aracı olarak kullanılmasını yasaklayan ilk sözleşme, 1675 yılında imzalanan Strasburg Anlaşması olmasına rağmen bu silahlar Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nda kitlesel ölçekte ve sonrasında tekrar eden şekilde kullanılmıştır. 1980’li yıllarda İran-Irak Savaşı kimyasal silahların kullanımında bir deney süreci gibidir ve bu savaş sırasında kimyasal silahlar geleneksel savaş silahları olarak kullanılmaya başlamıştır. Bu çalışmada İran-Irak Savaşı sırasındaki kimyasal saldırı örnekleri ele alınmıştır. Ortadoğu’da konuşlandırılan silahlar gibi kimyasal silahların gelişimi de uluslararası politikadan izole edilemez bu nedenle büyük dünya güçlerinin politikaları dikkate alınarak bu süreci incelemek gerekmektedir. Bu çalışmada İran-Irak Savaşı’nın resmi olarak tarafı olmayan ABD, İngiltere (Büyük Britanya), Fransa, İsrail, Almanya, İtalya ve Rusya’nın kimyasal silah üretimi ve kullanımına yönelik tutumları da değerlendirilmiştir. Çalışmanın kronolojik ve bilgisel alt yapısını oluşturmak için literatür taraması yapılmış ve basılı eserlerden yararlanılmıştır. ABD Ulusal istihbarat raporları ve bazı diplomatik yazışmalar incelenmiş, dönem medyası, politikacıların açıklamaları ve Birleşmiş Milletler Güvenlik Konseyi raporları ile savaş sırasında kimyasal saldırılara maruz kalan tanıkların ifadelerine çalışmayı geliştirmek için yer verilmiştir.

Kaynakça

  • Ahmadi, K., Reshadatjoo, M., Karami, G., Sepehrvand, N., Ahmadi, P., & Bazargan-Hejazi, S. (2011). Evaluation of secondary post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in the spouses of chemical warfare victims 20 years after the Iran–Iraq war. The Psychiatrist, 35(5), 168-175. https://doi.org/10.1192/pb.bp.110.029587
  • Ali, J. (2001). Chemical weapons and the Iran-Iraq War: A case study in noncompliance. The Nonproliferation Review, 8(1), 43-58, https://doi.org/10.1080/10736700108436837
  • American Chemical Society. (2014). Origins of the chemical weapons convention and the OPCW. https://www.acs.org/content/dam/acsorg/events/program-in-a-box/documents/2016-global-security/cw-history.pdf
  • Bakhash, S. (2006). The troubled relationship: Iran and Iraq: 1930-80. In Lawrence G. Potter & Gary G. Sick (Eds.), Iran, Iraq and the legacies of war (pp. 11-27). Palgrave MacMillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403980427_2
  • Bar-Yaacov, N. (2015). Achieving universality of the chemical weapons convention in the Middle East. Survival, 57(6), 159-180. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2015.1116162
  • Bothe, M. (1992). Convention on the prohibition of the development, production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons and on their destruction. United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law. http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/cpdpsucw/cpdpsucw.html
  • Byrnes, M. E., David A., King Philip., & M, Tierno. (Eds.). (2000). Nuclear, chemical and biological terrorism. Lewis Publishers.
  • Central Intelligence Agency Archive. (1984a). Iran-Iraq Military Situation Report 3. (Document Number: CIA-RDP86M00886R001100090010-3). https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP85T00287R001300900001-0.pdf
  • Central Intelligence Agency Archive. (1984b). Prospects for use of chemical weapons by Iraq against Iran over the next six months. (Document Number: CIA-RDP86M00886R001100090010-3). https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp86m00886r001100090010-3.
  • Chubin, S. (1989). The last phase of the Iran‐Iraq war: from stalemate to ceasefire, Third World Quarterly, 11(2), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436598908420154
  • Commission on the Intelligence Capabilities of the United States Regarding Weapons of Mass Destruction. (2005). Unclassified Version of the Report of the Commission on the Intelligence Capabilities of the United States Regarding Weapons of Mass Destruction. https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/GPO-WMD
  • Conference on Disarmament. (1987). Final record of the 393rd plenary meeting held at the Palais des Nations. (CD/PV. 393) UN Library.
  • Cook, T. (2000). Against god-inspired conscience: the perception of gas warfare as a weapon of mass destruction, 1915–1939, War & Society, 18(1), 47-69. https://doi.org/10.1179/072924700791201379
  • Cordesman, A. H. (2014). Iran’s rocket and missile forces and strategic options. Center for Strategic & International Studies. https://www.csis.org/analysis/iran%E2%80%99s-rocket-and-missile-forces-and-strategic-options-0
  • DeShazer, M. (1990). Chemical weapons proliferation in the Middle East. U.S. Army War College.
  • Deutch, M. J. (1996). Conference on nuclear, biological, chemical weapons proliferation and terrorism. Central Intelligence Agency. https://irp.fas.org/cia/product/dci_speech_052396.html
  • Dış Haberler Servisi. (1988, March 22). Milliyet. p. 4.
  • Douglas, M. R. (2009). Did Britain use chemical weapons in mandatory Iraq? The Journal of Modern History, 81(4), 859-887. https://doi.org/10.1086/605488
  • Eisenstadt, M. (1994). Deja vu all over again? An assessment of Iran’s military buildup. In P. Clawson (Ed.), Iran’s strategic intentions and capabilities (pp. 93-153). Institute for National Strategic Studies. https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a278559.pdf
  • Eisenstein, M. (1993). Countering the proliferation of chemical weapons. RAND Institution. https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/2006/MR207.pdf
  • Everts, S. (2015). A brief history of chemical war. Distillations Science History Institute. https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/a-brief-history-of-chemical-war
  • Ferretti, M. (1990). The Iran-Iraq war: United Nations resolution of armed conflict. Villanova Law Review 35(1), 197-252. https://digitalcommons.law.villanova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2908&context=vlr
  • Firouzkouhi, M., Zargham-Boroujeni, A., Nouraei, M., Yousefi, H., & Holmes, C. A. (2013). Nurses experiences in chemical emergency departments: Iran-Iraq war 1980-1988, International Emergency Nursing, 21(2), 123-128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ienj.2012.03.002
  • Gay, H. (1987). Chemical and biological warfare. The International History Review, 9(3), 465-472, https://doi.org/10.1080/07075332.1987.9640453
  • Ghazvinian, J. (2020). America and Iran: A history 1720 to the present. Oneworld Publications.
  • Guthrie, R. (1984). A chronology of events relating to Iraq and chemical & biological warfare. https://www.cbw-events.org.uk/EXIQ84Q1.PDF
  • Hajjar, S., G. (1998). Security implications of the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction in the middle east. The Strategic Studies Institute. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep11596
  • Hiltermann, J. (2007). A poisonous affair America, Iraq and the gassing of Halabja. Cambridge University Press.
  • Hiltermann, J. (2010). Deep traumas, fresh ambitions: legacies of the Iran-Iraq war. (Report No. 257). Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP). https://merip.org/2011/01/deep-traumas-fresh-ambitions/
  • Irak’tan itiraf. (1988, July 2). Milliyet. p. 5.
  • Karsh, E. (2002). The Iran-Iraq War 1980-1988. Osprey Publication.
  • Kelidar, A. (1992). The wars of Saddam Hussein. Middle Eastern Studies, 28(4), 778-798. https://doi.org/10.1080/00263209208700928
  • Kimyasal Silaha Gözaltı. (1988, March 27). Milliyet. p. 4.
  • Kimyasal Suçlama. (1987, May 14). Milliyet. p. 8.
  • Lewis, E. (2015). Abdolsamad Rajabi Dehkordi. Tehran Peace Museum. http://www.tehranpeacemuseum.org/index.php/en/oral-history/194-english/oral-history-en/1302-abdolsamad-rajab-dehkordi-oral-history-en.html.
  • Linstrum, E. (2019). Domesticating chemical weapons: tear gas and the militarization of policing in the British imperial world, 1919-1981. The Journal of Modern History, 91(3), 557–585. https://doi.org/10.1086/704383
  • McCamley, N. J. (2006). Secret history of chemical warfare. Yorkshire, Pen and Sword Military.
  • McNaugher, L. T. (1990). Ballistic missiles and chemical weapons: the legacy of the Iran-Iraq War. International Security, 15(2), 5-34. https://doi.org/10.2307/2538864
  • Organization for The Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. (2006). Remembering all victims of chemical warfare. https://www.opcw.org/fileadmin/OPCW/Victims_Network/Just_Orange/01851.pdf
  • Özdemir, S. (2017). İran devrimi sürecinde İran- ABD ilişkileri. (Kayıt No. 482182) [Doctoral dissertation, Istanbul University]. YOK Thesis Center.
  • Pelletiere, S., Douglas C., & Johnson, V. (1991). Lessons learned: Iran-Iraq war. U.S Department of The Navy, Strategic Studies Institute. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA232451.pdf
  • Reichart, J. F. (2001). Adversary use of nbc weapons: a neglected challenge. (No. 187). Strategic Forum Institute for National Strategic Studies National Defense University. https://wmdcenter.ndu.edu/Portals/97/Documents/Publications/Articles/Adversary-Use-of-NBC-Weapons.pdf
  • Renfrew, N. M. (1987). Who started the war. Foreign Policy, (66), 98-108. https://doi.org/10.2307/1148666
  • Rothman, L. (2018, April 14). A long, brutal history of chemical weapons lies behind trump’s decision to order airstrikes in Syria. Time.
  • Russel, R. L. (2005). Iraq’s chemical weapons legacy: what others might learn from Saddam. Middle East Journal, 59(2), 187- 208. https://doi.org/10.3751/59.2.11
  • Salaz, N. (2010). Ortadoğu’nun Hiroşiması Halepçe. Rezan Yayınları.
  • Sarıbeyoğlu, M. (2004). Kitle imha silahlarının kullanımının yasaklanmasına ilişkin uluslararası düzenlemeler. İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi Dergisi, 3(5), 21-53, http://www.acarindex.com/dosyalar/makale/acarindex-1423905096.pdf
  • Sassoon, J. (2014). The east German ministry for state security and Iraq, 1968–1989. Journal of Cold War Studies, 16(1), 4-23. https://doi.org/10.1162/JCWS_a_00429
  • SchilIare, M. Q. W. (1990). U. S. chemical defense and the third world threat. School of Advanced Military Studies United States Army Command and General Staff College Fort Leavenworth.
  • Schmidt, U. (2017). Preparing for poison warfare: the ethics and politics of Britain’s chemical weapons program, 1915–1945. In Friedrich, B., Hoffmann, D., Renn, J., Schmaltz, F. & Wolf, M. (Eds.). One hundred years of chemical warfare: research, deployment, Consequences (pp. 77-104). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51664-6_6
  • Segal, D. (1988). The Iran- Iraq war: a military analysis. Foreign Affairs, (Summer). https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/iran/1988-06-01/iran-iraq-war-military-analysis
  • Sidell, F. R., & Franz, D. R., (1997). Overview: Defense against the effects of chemical and biological warfare agents. In R. Zajtchuk (Ed.), Medical aspects of chemical and biological warfare. (pp. 1-9). The Office of The Surgeon General Department of the Army.
  • Smart, J. K., Al Mauroni, Hill, B.A. & Kok, A.B (1997). History of the chemical threat, chemical terrorism, and its implications for military medicine. In R. Zajtchuk (Ed.), Medical aspects of chemical and biological warfare. The Office of the Surgeon General. Department of the Army.
  • Tarock, A. (1998). The superpowers involvement in the Iran-Iraq War. Nova Science Publishers.
  • The United States Congress. (1988). Chemical weapons use in Kurdistan Iraq’s final offensive: a staff report to the committee on foreign relations. United States Senate, 100th Congress, 2nd Session, VIII-3, U.S Government Printing Office.
  • Tuşalp, E. (1989). Zehir yüklü bulutlar Halepçe’den Hakkari’ye. Bilgi Yayınevi.
  • Türk Basınında İran- Irak Savaşı. (1984). Kadıoğlu Matbaası.
  • United Nations. (1971). Question of chemical and bacteriological (biological) weapons. https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/328/43/IMG/NR032843.pdf?OpenElement
  • United Nations. (1984). Report of conference on disarmament. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/697795/files/CD_540%5BAppendix%20III_Vol.II%5D-EN.pdf
  • United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. (n.d.). Chemical Weapons. https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/chemical/
  • United Nations Regional Centre for Peace and Disarmament in Asia and the Pasific. (2013). Weapons of Mass Destruction. https://unrcpd.org/wmd/
  • United Nations Security Council. (1984). Resolution 552. http://unscr.com/files/1984/00552.pdf
  • United Nations Security Council. (1986). Resolution 582. http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/doc/582
  • United Nations Security Council. (1988a). Report of the Mission dispatched by the Secretary-General to investigate allegations of the chemical weapons in the conflict between the Islamic Republic of Iran and Iraq. http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/Disarm%20S19823.pdf
  • United Nations Security Council. (1988b). Resolution 612. http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/doc/612
  • United Nations Security Council. (1988c). Resolution 620. http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/doc/620 .
  • U.S. Government Office. (2004). Iraq’s chemical warfare program. Comprehensive report of the special advisor to the DCI on Iraq’s WMD with addendums. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-DUELFERREPORT/pdf/GPO-DUELFERREPORT-3.pdf
  • U.S. Government Printing Office. (2000). Iran’s ballistic missile and weapons of mass destruction programs. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-106shrg68305/html/CHRG-106shrg68305.htm
  • U.S. National Security Archive. (1984). Document Number: CIA-RDP85-T00287R001300900001-0. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP85T00287R001300900001-0.pdf
  • Walker, M. D. (2017). An agonizing death: 1980s U.S. policy on Iraqi chemical weapons during the Iran-Iraq War, The Journal of the Middle East and Africa, 8(2), 175-196. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520844.2017.1315554
  • Woods, K., Murray W., Holaday T., & Elkhamri M. (2009). Saddam’s war: An Iraqi military perspective of the Iran-Iraq War. NDU Press.
  • Woods, K., Murray W., Nathan E. A., Sabara L., & Venegas A. M. (2011). Saddam’s Generals: Perspectives of the Iran-Iraq War. Institute for Defense Analyses.
  • Woods, K. (2007). Iraqi perspectives project primary source materials for Saddam and terrorism: Emerging insights from captured Iraqi documents. Volume 4 (Redacted), Institute for Defense Analyses, https://fas.org/irp/eprint/iraqi/v4.pdf
Toplam 73 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Secil Ozdemir 0000-0002-0488-1314

Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Haziran 2022
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2022 Cilt: 6 Sayı: 1

Kaynak Göster

APA Ozdemir, S. (2022). Iran-Iraq War: The Employment of Chemical Weapons. İran Çalışmaları Dergisi, 6(1), 105-133. https://doi.org/10.33201/iranian.1084350

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